Index
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Published:2022
"Index", SPE Petroleum Engineering Certification and PE License Exam Reference Guide, Ali Ghalambor, PhD, PE
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A
accounting rate of return, 190
acidizing, 123–124
actual (inlet) volume flow, 158
annual discounting, 187
annular velocity using pump output, 47
appreciation of equity rate of return, 191
approximate gas migration rate, 48
Archie’s water saturation, 75
areal sweep efficiency, 23
artificial lift, 129–132
ASME B31.3 code, 165
ASME B31.4 code, 165
ASME B31.8 code, 165
axial force, 55
B
Babu-Odeh method, 88
balance point, for close-ended filled and unfilled pipe, 49–50
ballooning effect, 118
ballooning force, 118
basic orifice meter, 170
beam-pump HP, 131
bending force, 56
Bernoulli equation, 160–161
bit hydraulics, 46
bottle capacity, 49
bubblepoint pressure, 1–2
buckling effect, 117–118
bulk modulus, 43, 77
bulk reservoir volume, 5
bullheading calculations, 50
buoyed weight
of close-ended tubular after filling the pipe, 49
of close-ended tubular without fluid in the pipe, 49
of open-ended tubular, 49
burst pressure, 56
C
capacity factor (CF), 41
capillary pressure in a tube, 19
casing design, 55–57
CBL-4 CBL borehole fluid attenuation effects, 108–109
CBL-3 free pipe amplitude and attenuation, 106–107
cement additives, 58
cementing, 57–58
calculations, 58
cement slurry requirements
contact time, 57
slurry density, 57
centrifugal compressors, power requirement for, 150
centrifugal pumps, 155–156
chocked-fracture skin, 83
clean-sand model, 79
coalbed reservoirs
critical desorption pressure in, 33
gas recovery factor in, 33
Langmuir isotherm relationship, 32–33
volumetric estimate of gas in place, 32
coiled tubing, 128
collapse pressure, 56
completion skin, 82–83
compressibility factor, 158
compressible fluids
pseudosteady-state radial flow of, 15
steady-state linear flow of, 12–13
steady-state radial flow of, 13–14
unsteady-state (transient) radial flow of, 14
compression ratio per section, 159
compressors
actual (inlet) volume flow, 158
compressibility factor, 158
compression ratio per section, 159
discharge temperature for compression, 158
horsepower, 157–158
isentropic (adiabatic) compression, 156
isentropic (adiabatic) efficiency, 157
polytropic compression, 157
polytropic efficiency, 157
power requirement for centrifugal compressors, 158
power requirement for reciprocating compressors, 158
reciprocating compressors, 159–160
consolidated sandstones under hydrostatic pressure, 9
constants, 199
constant terminal rate solutions, 16–17
continuous discounting, 187
conversion factors
constants, 199
density, 198
energy, 198
force, 197
gas constant, 198
gravitational acceleration, 197
length, 197
mass, 197
power, 198
pressure, 198
temperature, 198
velocity, 198
viscosity, 198–199
volume, 198
critical rate for stable displacement, 22
D
Darcy’s law, 12
density, 198
depletion drive index (DDI), 10
depreciation, depletion, and amortization formulas, 189–190
D-exponent, 78
differential pressure flowmeters, 169
dimensionless gravity number, 24
discharge temperature for compression, 158
discounted cash flow rate of return, 191
discounted profit-to-investment ratio, 190–191
discounting, 187
displacement efficiency of a waterflood, 22–23
drilling engineering
buoyancy factor, 41
capacity factor, 41
casing design, 55–57
cementing, 57–58
drilling fluids, 43–46
drilling mechanics, 53–55
drillpipe classification, 41
fluid mechanics, 46–48
geomechanics, 42–43
hydrostatic pressure, 41
open-ended pipe displacement, 41
tubular mechanics, 54–55
well control, 48–52
well planning, 58–74
drilling fluids
dilution, 45–46
drilling wastes, 44
equivalent circulating density, 44
formation temperature, 45
hydrostatic pressure, 44–45
increase mud density, 45
loss of overbalance resulting from falling mud level, 45
maximum allowable mud weight from leak-off test data, 44
mud rheology, 43
total solids generated, 44
drilling mechanics
drillstring design, 54
rig equipment, 53
drillpipe classification, 41
drive mechanisms, 10–11
dual water model, 80
E
early linear flow, 85–86
early radial flow, 84
Eaton’s method
fracture pressure, 43
pore pressure, 42–43
effective and relative permeabilities, 19–20
effective area of snubbing jacks, 50
effective porosity, 78–79
effective yield strength, 56
E i -function solution to diffusivity equation, 15–16
elastic collapse, 56
electrical submersible pump (ESP), 136–138
electromagnetic flowmeters, 170
empirical flory equation for polymers, 28
emulsion treating, 148–149
energy, 198
equivalent circulating density (ECD), 44, 48
expansion drive index (EDI), 10
exponential decline method
for cumulative oil production, 29
for effective decline rate, 29
for life, 29
for nominal decline rate, 29
for rate, 29
F
Fertl and Hammack equation, 81
Fetkovich’s method, 113
fill-up water volume, 25
Firoozabadi and Aziz correlation, 29
flood front map, 26
flow calculation guide equations, 172
flow efficiency, 114
of perforated systems, 123
flow measurements units
basic orifice meter, 170
differential pressure flowmeters, 169
electromagnetic flowmeters, 170
flow calculation guide equations, 172
nomenclature, 173–174
orifice meter equation for natural gas, 171
pressure-relief-valve orifice designations, 174
thermal mass flowmeters, 170
transit-time ultrasonic meters, 171
turbine meter equation for gas, 174
turbine meter equation for liquid, 171
ultrasonic flowmeters, 170
variable area flowmeters, 169
vortex shedding flowmeters, 170
fluid mechanics, 46–48
flushed-zone water saturation, 76
force, 197
at wellhead, 49–50
formation and connate water compressibility index (CDI), 10
formation compressibility, 9
formation evaluation
Archie’s water saturation, 75
bulk modulus, 77
CBL-4 CBL borehole fluid attenuation effects, 108–109
CBL-3 free pipe amplitude and attenuation, 106–107
D-exponent, 78
flushed-zone water saturation, 76
formation resistivity factor, 75–76
gamma ray borehole corrections, 98–99
Gen-1a borehole diagram, 92
Gen-2a international geothermal gradient, 94
Gen-1b casing diagram, 93
Gen-2b North America geothermal gradient, 95
Gen-5 resistivity-salinity-temperature conversions of NaCl solutions, 96–97
horizontal flow influx equations, 84–90
Poisson’s ratio, 77–78
POR-10 bulk (log) density vs. porosity, 100–101
porosity/bulk density, 78–79
porosity calculations from sonic data, 76
POR-18 saturation estimation in gas-bearing zones, 104–105
POR-11 sonic vs. porosity, 102–103
saturation, 79–81
shear modulus, 77
skin calculations, 81–84
SW-1 Archie nomograph, 91
Young’s modulus, 76–77
formation pressure (FP), 47
formation resistivity factor, 75–76
fractional flow equation, 20–21
fracture damage, 83–84
fracture-face skin, 83–84
fracture gradient, 123
fracturing, 124–127
basic hydraulic fracturing equations, 124
dimensionless fracture conductivity, 125
fracture productivity index, 126
general fracturing treatment formulas, 125
hydraulic power, 126
hydrostatic pressure, 127
mass dissolving power of an acid, 126
net pressure, 125
optimum fracture conductivity, 125
perforation friction, 125
surface injection pressure, 126
frontal-advance equation, 21
G
gamma ray borehole corrections, 98–99
gas cap drive index (GCDI), 10
gas cap drive mechanism, 11
gas constant, 198
gas formation volume factor, 6
gas recovery efficiency (RE), 8
gas reservoirs with water influx, 7–8
gas treating units, 151–152
gas unit recovery factor (RF), 7
gas velocity, 114
gas well performance, 111–112
Gen-1a borehole diagram, 92
Gen-2a international geothermal gradient, 94
Gen-1b casing diagram, 93
Gen-2b North America geothermal gradient, 95
Gen-5 resistivity-salinity-temperature conversions of NaCl solutions, 96–97
geomechanics, 42–43
Gilbert’s choke equation, 129
gravel-pack skin, 82
gravitational acceleration, 197
H
harmonic decline method
for cumulative oil production, 30
for effective decline rate, 30
for life, 31
for nominal decline rate, 30
for rate, 30
Hazen-Williams equation, 161
height of influx, 48
hemi-radial flow, 84–85
Hooke’s law effect, 117
horizontal flow influx equations
early linear flow, 85–86
early radial flow, 84
hemi-radial flow, 84–85
late linear flow, 87–88
late pseudoradial flow, 86–87
logging charts, 89–90
productivity index, 89
uniform flux equation, 88
horizontal separator, 145–146
horizontal stress and pore pressure, 43
Horner equation, 17
Horner’s approximation, 17
horsepower, 157–158
hydraulic horsepower, 46, 47
hydraulic impact force, 47
hydraulic jet pumping, 138
hydraulic pressure to snub, 50
hydrodynamics, 152–155
hydrostatic pressure (HP), 41, 44
hydrostatics, 152
hyperbolic decline method
for cumulative oil production, 29
for effective decline rate, 30
for life, 30
for nominal decline rate, 30
for rate, 29
I
incompressible fluids
steady-state linear flow of, 12
steady-state radial flow of, 13
initial reserves
of condensate, 32
of gas, 31–32
for oil, 31
of solution gas, 31
interfacial tension (IFT), 19
investment decision analysis, 190–191
isentropic (adiabatic) compression, 156
isentropic (adiabatic) efficiency, 157
isothermal compressibility, 9
K
kill sheet calculations, 48–49
Klins-Clark method, 113
L
laminated sand/shale model, 79
late linear flow, 87–88
late pseudoradial flow, 86–87
leak-off test equivalent mud weight (LOT), 48
length, 197
limestone formations under hydrostatic pressure, 9
LNG screening, 191
logging charts, 89–90
lubricate and bleed calculations, 52
M
mass, 197
material balance, 8
maximum bending stress, 56
maximum down force on jacks, 50
maximum initial shut-in casing pressure (MISICP), 48
maximum injection rate, 123
mobility ratio, 20
mobility reduction, 28
modified hall-plot equation, 21–22
monthly discounting, 187
N
Newman correlations, 9
nitrogen/lean gas injection, 29
non-Darcy flow skin, 83
O
oil recovery efficiency (RE), 3–4
oil saturation at the start of waterflood, 25
oil unit recovery factor (RF), 3
open-ended pipe displacement, 41
optimum flow rate, 46
optimum pressure losses, 46
orifice meter equation for natural gas, 171
overall waterflood oil recovery efficiency, 22
P
Panhandle equation, 162
perforating, 123
permeability
effective and relative, 19–20
reduction, 28
petroleum economics
investment decision analysis, 190–191
reservoir management, 188–190
risk analysis, 191–195
valuation of oil and gas reserves, 187–188
petroleum exploration risk analysis, 194–195
pipelines
design, 168
pipe wall thickness, 165
pressure drop caused by valves and fittings, 163–164
pressure drop equations
Bernoulli equation, 160–161
Hazen-Williams equation, 161
Panhandle equation, 162
pressure drop due to changes in elevation, 163
pressure drop for gas flow, 162
pressure drop for liquid flow, 161
Reynolds number for liquids, 161
spitzglass equation, 162–163
two-phase pressure drop, 163
Weymouth equation, 162
velocity calculations, 167–168
pipe wall thickness, 165
plastic collapse, 57
Poisson’s ratio, 77–78
polymer retention measurements conversion, 28
polytropic compression, 157
polytropic efficiency, 157–158
POR-10 bulk (log) density vs. porosity, 100–101
pore volume contraction index (PVCI), 10
porosity
bulk density, 78–79
calculations from sonic data, 76
from core analysis, 78
effective, 78–79
POR-18 saturation estimation in gas-bearing zones, 104–105
POR-11 sonic vs. porosity, 102–103
positive-displacement pump, 155, 156
Poupon-Leveaux (Indonesia) model, 79
power, 198
power requirement
for centrifugal compressors, 158
for reciprocating compressors, 158
pressure, 198
pressure buildup analysis, 17
pressure drawdown analysis, 16–17
pressure drop
due to changes in elevation, 163
for gas flow, 162
in gas wells, 114
for liquid flow, 161
pressure drop equations
Bernoulli equation, 160–161
Hazen-Williams equation, 161
Panhandle equation, 162
pressure drop due to changes in elevation, 163
pressure drop for gas flow, 162
pressure drop for liquid flow, 161
Reynolds number for liquids, 161
spitzglass equation, 162–163
two-phase pressure drop, 163
Weymouth equation, 162
pressure losses, 128
pressure-relief-valve orifice designations, 174
production engineering
acidizing, 123–124
artificial lift, 129–131
basic loads on polished rod, 136
calcium carbonate scale, 139
corrosion, 140
densities of CaCl2 solutions, 141–142
densities of NaCl solutions, 142
electrical submersible pump, 136–137
fracturing, 124–127
gas lift, 136
impact of length and force changes to the tubing string, 115
inflow/outflow performance
Fetkovich’s method, 113
flow efficiency, 114
gas velocity, 114
gas well performance, 111–112
Klins-Clark method, 113
pressure drop in gas wells, 114
skin effect, 114
Standing’s method, 113
Vogel’s method, 112
Wiggins’ method, 113
NaCl concentrations, 142–143
perforating, 123
pump constants, 135
pump unit design, 132–135
solution densities, 141–143
sucker rod data, 135
tubing, 140–141
tubing data, 135
tubing design
ballooning effect, 118
ballooning force, 118
buckling effect, 117
burst differential pressure, 117
collapse differential pressure, 116
Hooke’s law effect, 117
internal yield pressure rating for tubing, 116
length of tubing, 117
maximum hydrostatic test pressure, 116
stretch in tubing, 116
temperature effect, 118
tubing hook load in air, 116
tubing hook load in fluid, 116
well production problems, 127–129
productivity index, 89
pseudoreduced pressure and temperature, 6
pseudosteady-state radial flow of compressible fluids, 15
pseudosteady-state radial flow of slightly compressible fluids, 15
pumps
centrifugal pumps, 155–156
constants, 135
hydrodynamics, 152–155
hydrostatics, 152
positive-displacement pump, 155, 156
strokes, 48
unit design, 132–135
pyramid rule, 9–10
R
reciprocating compressors, 159–160
power requirement for, 158
recoverable oil
at breakthrough time, 21
from waterflooding, 25
relative permeabilities and water saturation, 20
reserves estimations, 29–32
reservoir bulk volume, 9–10
reservoir engineering
drive mechanisms, 10–11
formation compressibility, 9
gas reservoirs with water influx, 7–8
material balance, 8
reserves estimations, 29–32
reservoir bulk volume, 9–10
saturated oil reservoirs, 4
secondary recovery processes, 19–27
stages of production, 12–16
tertiary recovery processes, 27–29
unconventional reservoirs, 32–39
undersaturated oil reservoirs
volumetric, 1–2
with water influx, 3–4
volumetric dry gas, wet gas, and retrograde gas condensate reservoirs, 4–7
well performance, 16–19
reservoir management, 188–190
reservoir pore volume, 5
reservoirs
coalbed
critical desorption pressure in, 33
gas recovery factor in, 33
Langmuir isotherm relationship, 32–33
volumetric estimate of gas in place, 32
gas, 7–8
saturated oil, 4
unconventional, 32–39
undersaturated oil
volumetric, 1–2
with water influx, 3–4
volumetric dry gas, wet gas, and retrograde gas condensate, 4–7
water cut and water-oil ratio (WOR) relationships, 27
residual resistance factor of the polymer solution, 28
resistance factor of the polymer solution, 28
resistivity index, 75
Reynolds number for liquids, 153
risk analysis, 191–195
S
saturated oil reservoirs, 4
saturation, 79–81
from neutron logs, 80
from SP logs, 80–81
secondary recovery processes, 19–27
segregation (gas cap) drive index (SDI), 10
self-supporting cone roofs, 177
self-supporting dome and umbrella roofs, 177
separation units
demister sizing, 147
horizontal separator, 145–146
retention time, 146
seam-to-seam length, 147–148
vertical vessels, 147
shale gas reserves estimation, 32
shear modulus, 77
shell and tube heat transfer, 178–179
Simpson’s rule, 9
skin calculations, 81–84
skin effect, 114
skin factor for multiphase-flow test analysis using semi-log plots, 83
skin in deviated wells, 82
skin in incompletely perforated interval, 81–82
skin pressure drop and skin factor, 81
skin with apparent wellbore radius, 81
slightly compressible fluids
pseudosteady-state radial flow of, 15
steady-state linear flow of, 12
steady-state radial flow of, 13
unsteady-state (transient) radial flow of, 14
slip crushing, 54
slow circulation rate (SCR), 48
snubbing force for snubbing operation, 49
solution densities, 141–143
Solution gas drive index (SGDI), 10
solution gas drive mechanism, 11
specific gravity
of a gas, 6–7
of a reservoir gas for a one-stage separation system, 7
of a reservoir gas for a three-stage separation system, 7
spitzglass equation, 162–163
stages of production, 12–16
Standing’s method, 113
steady-state linear flow
of compressible fluids, 12–13
of incompressible fluids, 12
of slightly compressible fluids, 12
steady-state radial flow
of compressible fluids, 13–14
of incompressible fluids, 13
of slightly compressible fluids, 13
Stiles’ method, 24–25
storage facilities
allowable stress on roof-supporting columns, 176
approximate horsepower required to compress gases, 185
compressibility of low-molecular-weight natural gases, 182–184
friction factors for commercial pipe, 180
hydrocarbon-gas viscosity vs. temperature, 181
liquid weight at the shell, 177
maximum height of the unstiffened shell, 176
minimum section modulus of the stiffening ring, 176
minimum thickness of shell plates, 175
minimum width of the tank-bottom reinforcing plate, 176
multiple pressure-relief-valve requirements, 186
net uplift loads, 177–178
rafters requirement, 177
self-supporting cone roofs, 177
self-supporting dome and umbrella roofs, 177
shell and tube heat transfer, 178–179
storage pressure, 179
viscosities of hydrocarbon liquids, 180
sucker rod
data, 135
pumping, 129–131
suspended weight, 55
SW-1 Archie nomograph, 91
T
temperature, 198
effect, 118
tension, 54–55
tertiary recovery processes, 27–29
thermal-mass flowmeters, 170
transition collapse, 56
transit-time ultrasonic meters, 171
trapezoidal rule, 9
treating and processing units
emulsion treating, 148–149
gas treating, 151–152
water treating, 149–151
triplex pump output, 47
tubing, 140–141
tubing data, 135
tubing design
ballooning effect, 118
ballooning force, 118
buckling effect, 117–118
burst differential pressure, 117
collapse differential pressure, 116
Hooke’s law effect, 117
internal yield pressure rating for tubing, 116
length of tubing, 117
maximum hydrostatic test pressure, 116
stretch in tubing, 116
temperature effect, 118
tubing hook load in air, 116
tubing hook load in fluid, 116
tubular mechanics, 54–55
turbine meter equation for gas, 171
turbine meter equation for liquid, 171
two-phase pressure drop, 163
U
ultrasonic flowmeters, 170
unconventional reservoirs, 32–39
undersaturated oil reservoirs
volumetric, 1–2
with water influx, 3–4
uniform flux equation, 88
unsteady-state (transient) radial flow of compressible fluids (diffusivity equation), 14
unsteady-state (transient) radial flow of slightly compressible fluids (diffusivity equation), 14
V
valuation of oil and gas reserves, 187–188
variable area flowmeters, 169
velocity, 198
vertical sweep efficiency, 24–25
vertical vessels, 146
viscosity, 198–199
Vogel’s method, 112
volume, 198
of usable fluid, 48
volumetric dry gas, wet gas, and retrograde gas condensate reservoirs, 4–7
von Mises stress, 55
vortex shedding flowmeters, 170
W
water coning, 128–129
water drive index (WDI), 10
water drive mechanism, 11
waterflood patterns, 26–27
water injectivity equation, 23–24
water requirements, 58
water treating, 149–151
Waxman-Smits-Thomas model, 80
weighted average cost of capital, 187
Welge equation for the fractional flow of gas, 27–28
wellbore
containing only single-phase fluid, 16
well with a rising liquid/gas interface, 16
well control, 48–52
well performance, 16–19
well planning
calculations before reaching final build angle, 60
casing properties, 66–69
diamond cutter drag bit, 70
diamond drillbit classification chart, 71
drill collars capacity and displacement, 65
drillpipe properties, 62–63
drillpipe range, 64
friction factor vs. Reynolds number, 62
IADC dull grading, 73
material properties, 74
roller-cone bit, 71
rolling-cutter-bit classification chart, 72
well cost, 60
well path design, 58–60
well production problems, 127–129
Weymouth equation, 162
Wiggins’ method, 113
Y
yield collapse, 57
yield strength, effective, 56
Young’s modulus, 76–77
