Abstract Shale gas has emerged as a potentially significant source of new and accessible natural gas reserves. Significant gas shale prospects have been found in a number of jurisdictions including North America, Europe, Asia and Australia. Benefits for these jurisdictions include reducing their dependency on imported energy supplies which are often more costly in terms of exploration, production, processing and/or transportation. Technological advancements have been essential to the development of shale gas-in particular the use of hydraulic fracking. This involves forcing a mixture of water, sand and chemicals into shale rock formations under high pressure. Fracking has made it possible to unlock natural gas in a cost effective manner that would otherwise be inaccessible using conventional drilling methods. However, the use of fracking has proved controversial. Concerns with fracking include excessive water usage, ground water supply contamination, uncertainty regarding the chemicals used in the process, and adverse effects on ground stability. Public concerns and negative mainstream media and NGO reports have led various jurisdictions including the United Kingdom, France and various North American states/provinces to place moratoriums on fracking pending further study and inquiry. In large part, these moratoriums on fracking are the result of regulators needing to examine and understand the new technology related to the fracking process and regulations drafted to appropriately reflect this understanding. In many cases, existing regulations related to gas production do not adequately address new fracking production techniques and related public concerns. This regulatory vacuum results in uncertainty and frustration for shale gas producers, the public and regulators. Given the current state of affairs, we suggest that industry should take the opportunity to play a lead role in collaborating with governments/regulators, the public and responsible interest groups in the development of sustainable regulatory regimes for fracking and shale gas production. These regimes should balance the need for public consultation with responsible shale gas development and production in a cost effective and environmentally sound manner using up to date technology.

Abstract Biodiesel, an alternative renewable fuel made from transesterification of vegetable oil with alcohol, is becoming more readily available for use in blends with conventional diesel fuel for transportation applications. Soybean & Rapeseed are common feed stocks for biodiesel production in USA & Europe respectively. Likewise, Palm is being exploited in South East Asia. However, India is not self sufficient in edible oils. On the other hand, the energy demand of Indian industry is also increasing due to growing economic activities. Therefore, India is focusing on development of renewable fuels. A National Mission on biodiesel has been proposed in India and specifications for Diesel have been amended, to allow for 5% blending of biodiesel in diesel. In order to explore additional oil resources, research work has been undertaken for screening of various tree borne oil seeds for their potential as biodiesel feedstock. The seeds of twelve trees of Chattisgarh state, viz., Emblica Officinal is (Amla), Carthamus Tinctorious (Kusum), Guizotia Abyssinoca (Niger), Carrum Roxburghianum (Ajmonda), Pongamia Glaibra (Karanjia), Psoralea Corylifolia (Bawachi), Tamarindus Indicus (Tamarind), Azadirachta Indica (Neem), Carthamus Tinctorius (Safflower), Terminalia Bellerica (Beheda), Terminalia Chebula (Harra), Semecarpus anacardium (Bhilawa), were collected and examined for their oil content by solvent extraction. The respective oils were examined for their chemical composition. The oils, which were found to be rich in glycerides were trans-esterified with methanol to produce corresponding methyl esters. The synthesis process was optimized by varying different catalysts and reaction conditions. The reactions were also carried out under microwave heat. It was found that microwaves accelerate the reaction process and reactions get completed at lower temperature. Effect of ultrasonic radiations on reaction synthesis was also examined. The ultrasonic radiations improve the yield and reduce the formation of emulsions. Synthesised methyl esters were evaluated for their physico-chemical properties vis-a-vis methyl ester of Jatropha Oil, which is being promoted as prime source of vegetable oil in the proposed National Mission of Biodiesel in India. The synthesized biodiesel were also blended in Diesel at 5-20% concentration and tested for physico-chemical properties. Based on extensive experimentation, it has been concluded that Azadirachta Indica (Neem), Pongamia Glaibra (Karanjia) & Terminalia Bellerica (Beheda) are potential resources for Biodiesel manufacturing. These oils can also be blended with Jatropha Curcas or other vegetable oils for manufacturing biodiesel. Experimental details and results would be presented.

Abstract The demand for crude oil is increasing with each passing day. The emerging new economies with double digit economic growth are driving fossil fuels and crude oil consumption despite its finite resources. As a result, the quest for an alternative energy and fuel source has been intensified. Biodiesel, ethanol, butanol etc. are all attractive options, with biodiesel the fastest growing technology among all. Biodiesel is derived from the transesterification process of vegetable oils, animal fats, or spent restaurant grease. Biodiesel, or fatty acids methyl esters (FAME), possesses numerous technical and environmental advantages compared to fossil fuels such as cleaner burning fuel than diesel, lower emission of greenhouse gases, lubricity etc. Despite all this, biodiesel suffers from major quality drawbacks such as cold flow properties, long term thermal and oxidative stability etc. The latter issue becomes significant particularly when the biodiesel is exposed to air, heat, light or trace metallic species. As a result, different polymers, oligomers, acids, aldehydes etc. are formed which have far reaching consequences on fuel pump components, combustion profile and overall engine performance. In this study, the long term oxidative stability of several biodiesel feedstocks in the presence of stabilizers has been evaluated. Numerous analytical and instrumental techniques to assessing biodiesel quality such as peroxide values by ASTM 0-3307, induction period Rancimat EN 14112, level of insolubles ASTM 0-2274 and gum formation, acid value ASTM 0-664, viscosity ASTM 0-445 etc. under normal and stressed conditions have been investigated. A correlation between the biodiesel peroxides formation versus the actual induction period has been proposed. An inversely proportional relationship between the two parameters was found.

Abstract PETRO BRAS' programme for expanding activities in the biofuels area has the key strategic target of leading the Brazilian production and retail market. The planned PETROBRAS' production until 2012 is 860,000 m3 biodiesel/year, associated to 10-12% of glycerin, byproduct of the reaction. Within this context, a large growth in the offer of glycerin is expected, accompanied by a market price decrease, therefore creating a challenge, as well as business opportunities, for new uses of glycerin. PETRO BRAS is pursuing two lines of action for glycerin: short term and medium/long term. In the first case, the aim is to give a quick environmentally adequate destination to the glycerin, such as produced with the biodiesel, without any further treatment. Among these are included combustion in cement factories, blending with animal food, dust collector in mining industries, etc. The second case focuses the development of technologies that include chemical transformation, adding value to the glycerin and producing financial gains. Under this line of medium term initiatives, emphasis is being given to applications inside the fossil fuels production chain of PETROBRAS, such as fluids for E&P, additives for fuels and lubricants, etc. By these means, the competitive advantage of PETROBRAS as a producer of both fossil and renewable fuels is enhanced. Furthermore, as a result of this synergy, the association with PETRO BRAS' leadership of fossil fuels in Brazil will provide quick market expansion and penetration to biofuels and glycerin derived products.

Abstract The growth of public interest in green, renewable biofuel has only been eclipsed by the way in which the agricultural and fuel sectors have swung into action to deliver biofuels to the market place to meet this interest. However, this change in energy sourcing has not been without its hurdles. The production of bioethanol and biodiesel, while relatively straight forward has been problematic in terms of scaling up production capacity to the levels required to supply the market, or more importantly to take up the available feedstock. The use of simulation in this environment has been a critical factor in designing process plant to bring these products to the market place. However simulation goes beyond this traditional step and extends into the management of the process. The quality of the final product biofuel is dependant not only on the base mineral fuel stock from refining or gas to liquid processes but also on the oxygen content of the biofuel. While the monitoring of the oxygen content is relatively straightforward, the capital cost of the instruments and their upkeep is relatively high. This paper covers the use of simulation to design, operate, monitor and control high quality biofuel production. The main cost savings attributable to the use of simulation in both the design and operational phases are highlighted. The paper goes on to describe how the simulation tools are linked to the blending tools which deliver the required quality biofuel to the retail market.

Abstract. LNG Projects for the last 25 years, have been large multiple train facilities capable of liquefying about 30 Mm3 of gas. These mega projects have been required in order to gain economies of scale and insure reliable product delivery. To address the problems associated with bringing small isolated (orphan) gas reserves to market via LNG, Phillips Petroleum Company has for the last 4 yr conducted studies to reduce the cost of these projects. The basis of these studies has been the highly successful Kenai LNG Project where Phillips and its co-owner Marathon Oil Company have delivered 1.1 million tonnes/yr of LNG for nearly 30 yr to the Japanese market. This paper will present the results of these studies and demonstrate that single train LNG plants with dual train reliability as employed by Phillips successfully in the Kenai LNG Project can be economically viable. LNG plants built in the future employing Phillips Optimized Cascade LNG technology provide a bright future for the Peoples Republic of China and other countries needing clean, inexpensive sources of energy. I N T R O D U CTI O N The Phillips Optimized Cascade LNG Process has been in commercial operation since the fall of 1969, when the Kenai LNG plant, located at Kenai, Alaska, shipped the first LNG cargo to Japan. The liquefaction technology employed at Kenai is an early version of this highly reliable and efficient process. Since the 1960s Phillips Petroleum Company has continued, through process and project studies, to improve and optimize the process. THE BASIC PROCESS Targets of process design The Phillips Optimized Cascade LNG Process was originally developed by the Engineering and Research and Development Divisions of Phillips Petroleum Company to provide a liquefaction cycle for the Kenai project that would : Permit easy start-up of the plant; and Permit smooth operation of the plant over a wide range of feed volumes and compositions. Process selection Based on Phillips' experience in helium plant process design, construction and operation of a cascade cycle utilizing propane, ethylene, and methane as refrigerants was selected for the Kenai project (see Fig. 1). Propane was chosen becau

Abstract. Refining crude oil to fuels or lubricants presents common problems: higher energy costs, declining quality of raw materials and shifting product demand. In response, improved catalytic and separation processes have been introduced, and innovative new processes commercialized. Examples of the latter include chromatographic separation of paraffins from naphtha for octane improvement, and membrane recovery of hydrogen from low purity streams. The catalytic dewaxing process for fuels has been significantly improved and the technology successfully extended to lubes. Hydrocracking catalysts have been tailored to enhance yields of gasoline, turbo fuel, or lubes. Progress has been made in residue thermal treating and hydrotreating to reduce metal and CCR content prior to cat cracking. Direct resid cat cracking has been facilitated by new catalysts with improved metal tolerance, advances in passivation, and new reactor and regenerator configurations. Fixed and moving bed residue hydroconversion has achieved higher conversions, but stiff competition is imminent from slurry processes. Energy consumption in lube processing has been reduced by distillation improvements, such as the use of packing in vacuum pipestills, triple effect evaporation and gas stripping for solvent recovery. Evolutionary improvements to solvent extraction and dewaxing include new solvents (NMP) new extraction tower designs and new solvent dewaxing configurations. Résumé. Le raffinage du pétrole brut en combustibles ou lubrifiants présente des problèmes communs: coût plus élevé de l'énergie, dégradation de la qualité des matières premières et évolution dans la demande de produits. Pour y faire face, des procédés catalytiques et de séparation perfectionnés ont été adoptés et des procédés innovateurs ont été commercialisés. Ces derniers comprennent par exemple la séparation chromatographique des paraffines à partir du naphta pour l'amélioration du niveau d'octane et la récupération par membrane de l'hydrogène contenu à faible teneur dans des mélanges gazeux. Le déparaffinage catalytique des combustibles a été considérablement amélioré et sa technologie étendue avec succès aux lubrifiants. Des catalyseurs d'hydrocraquage ont été conçus spécialement pour améliorer les rendements en essence, en turbocombustible ou en lubrifiants. Des progrès ont été faits dans le traitement thermique et l'hydrotraitement des résidus afin de réduire la teneur en métal et en carbone Conradson avant le craquage catalytique. Le craquage catalytique direct des résidus a ét

Abstract. Shortage and cost of fuels has stimulated fuel efficient automotive engine and transmission lubricant development. Lower viscosity base oils and friction reducing additives have successfully been used to formulate such oils. Synthetic hydrocarbons, esters and hydrotreated mineral base stocks of high Viscosity Index and low volatility yield high performance lubricants meeting increased demands on product stability under more severe and long drain operating conditions. Special lubricants have been developed for use with oxygenated fuels in spark ignition and diesel engines. Whilst severe hydrotreatment is costly and hence restricted it reduces the refiner's dependence on special crude oil types. Modifications to solvent extraction and catalytic dewaxing processes have been studied to reduce energy requirements in processing. Industrial lubricant developments show trends towards increased usage of: high-water based hydraulic fluids, ester and polyalphaolefins-based compressor oils, polymer quenchants, synthetic coolants for metal cutting and aluminium and lithium complex greases. Reduction of marine engine operating costs involving use of lower quality fuels and increased part-load running of main engines has led to problems being combatted by the use of lubricants having higher effective alkalinity/detergency/dispersancy and ‘low ash’ lubricants. New laboratory test methods have been developed to update correlation with field performance of lubricants. Résumé. La pénurie et les augmentations des coûts des carburants ont encouragé la mise au point de lubrifiants pour moteurs et engrenages automobiles assurant un meilleur rendement. A cet effet, on a fait intervenir avec succès des huiles de base à plus faible viscosité, ainsi que des additifs diminuant le frottement dans la composition de tels produits. Les hydrocarbures synthétiques, esters et huiles minérales de base produits par hydrotraitement et présentant un haut indice de viscosité et une faible volatilité ont permis d'obtenir des lubrif

Never before has the need been greater and more pressing for the most efficient recovery of oil from existing reservoirs. World's discovered petroleum resources of light and medium oils are estimated at roughly 600 × IO9 m3, and the heavy oils at 400 × lo9 m3. At present, the world-wide average ultimate recovery from the light and medium oils is about 150 × lo9 m3, or roughly 25% of the in-place oil, while from the heavy oil deposits on the average only 10% of the oil-in-place will be recovered. Increasing demand and prices for petroleum and the desire of all people to have an adequate and continuous supply make it imperative that better technology be developed and applied. Research in the laboratory together with new and innovative applications in the field have demonstrated that substantially increased oil recoveries can be achieved economically-as has been exemplified by the reports delivered in this Panel Discussion and in the Panel Discussion No. 9, 8th World Petroleum Congress in Moscow. As you know, the theme of this congress is "Petroleum for the Welfare of Mankind". One would like to think that the theme for this Panel Discussion we had today is Increased and More Eficient Oil Recovery for the Welfare of Mankind. It is hoped that everyone will go away from this session thinking for always how to get more oil from reservoirs. There are two ways to increase crude oil reserves: discovery and enhanced recovery operations. The latter has some obvious advantages. Exploration costs and risks, which have been spiralling in the last decade, are absent in improved recovery schemes. We know where the billions of barrels of oil reserves are located. Also, discoveries require sizeable new investments, while new improved recovery operations utilise injection, production and transportation facilities that are for the most part already in place. Incidentally, the limitations on efficient recovery apply equally to new pools. All improved oil recovery methods have several basic requirements in common: the process must mobilise oil which would have been left as residual, i.e. increase the displacement efficiency. A substantially greater part of the reservoir must be contacted and displaced by the injected fluid, i.e. volumetric sweep efficiency must be increased. Any mobilised oil must be moved to the production wells and not be retrapped in other parts of the reservoir. Last and most important, the process must be viable economically. Experience has taught us that novel and more efficient recovery processes must be started in a reservoir as early as possible not only to increase the production and the ultimate recovery but also to reduce the operating life of a field thereby giving a more attractive rate of return on investment. It is fa

Abstract Dilute aqueous sulphonate solutions exhibit maximum efficiency of oil displacement in brines of low salinity. Results from a field test in a tight, freshwater reservoir will be presented. Reservoir and performance evaluation as affected by lithologic complexities will be stressed. Measurements of residual oil saturations by several methods, use of tracers for evaluation of sweep, and well stimulation techniques will be discussed. SURFACTANT WATERFLOODING - 1. INTRODUCTION A surfactant waterñood attempts to mobilise the oil that is trapped in pore spaces during a more conventional fluid injection project, such as a waterflood. This can be achieved by decreasing the interfacial forces which result in oil entrapment in the first place. Surfactants in general affect these interfacial forces, but not always to the extent that trapped oil can be mobilised with the available pressure gradient. Taber established a relationship between residual oil saturation and the group AP/Ly. He found that no discontinuous oil (residual oil) could be mobilised in Berea sandstone until a critical value of AP/Ly of about 5 (psi/ft)/(dyne/cm) was exceeded. Progressively more residual oil could be displaced as AP/Ly was increased-all oil being displaced when the group exceeded 400 (psi/ft)/(dyne/cm). For a reservoir pressure gradient of 1 psi/ft, it would be necessary to lower interfacial tension (y) between crude oil and brine to about IO- dyne/cm to recover substantially all of the residual oil. Taber further recognised that the critical ratio of the group AP/Ly for displacing by H. E. GILLILAND and F. R. CONLEY, Continental Oil Company, P.O. Drawer 1267, Ponca City, Oklahoma, 74601, U.S.A. Résumé Les faibles solutions aqueuses de Sulfonate produisent un rendement maximum de déplacement du pétrole dans le cas de saumures de basse salinité. On présente les résultats acquis durant un essai sur un réservoir à faible permeabilité contenant de l'eau douce. On insiste sur le rôle joué par les complications lithologiques sur l'évaluation du réservoir et de ses performances. On y discute aussi de l'évaluation de la saturation d'huile résiduelle par différentes méthodes, de l'emploi de traceurs pour évaluer les caractéristiques du balayage et finalement des techniques de stimulation des puits. residual oil was a fundamental property and would be different for each rock type. Dullien et aL2 advanced a correlation between the surfactant waterñooding oil recovery and the pore structure of reservoir rocks. Their structural difficulty index provides a means of classifying rocks and the ease of displacing residual oil from them. Tighter rocks with their smaller pore diameters require higher pressure gradients or lower interfacial tensions to mobilise trapped oil. Gogarty and Tosc~,~ Holm,4 and others suggested an alternative "miscible" type of surfactant waterflood. Since the early work of S~hulman,~ the preparation of thermod

Abstract The South Swan Hills oil reservoir is a carbonate reef with 890 million barrels of oil originally in place located in north central Alberta. Water injection was started along the southwest edge of the field in 1963. In 1973 a miscible recovery scheme was put into operation in the central portion of the reservoir. An enriched hydrocarbon gas volume equal to 10% of the pore volume is to be injected as the solvent. Equal volumes of water are being injected alternately with the solvent to improve the sweep efficiency of the flood. The miscible flood is expected to increase recovery by 100 million barrels over water flooding. Résumé Le réservoir de pétrole de South Swan Hills est un récif carbonaté, avec 123 million de tonnes de pétrole originellement en place, situé au centre Nord de l'Alberta. L'injection d'eau a commencé au bord sud-ouest du gisement en 1963. En 1973, un plan de récupération miscible a été mis en oeuvre dans la partie centrale du réservoir. Un volume de gaz enrichi, égal en hydrocarbures à 10% du volume des pores, sera injecté en tant que solvant. Des volumes égaux d'eau sont injectés alternativement avec le solvant pour augmenter l'efficacité de balayage. On attend de l'injection miscible qu'elle augmente la récupération de 14 millions de tonnes par rapport à l'injection d'eau. 1. INTRODUCTION The South Swan Hills field, one of a group of Devonian reef structures located in north central Alberta, was discovered in 1959 and is estimated to have 890 million brl of oil originally in place. Water injection was started into wells on the southwestern edge of the field in 1963 following unitisation of ownership. Engineering studies performed at that time predicted an ultimate recovery of 45% of the oil by water flooding. Due to low market demand a large portion of the field was not placed in production initially. Production increased from 14000 bd in 1963 to 50000 bd in 1972 and totalled 96 million brl by the end of 1972. It was recognised that an opportunity existed to obtain higher oil recovery in the unflooded portion of the field through application of more efficient displacement processes and engineering studies were started in 1970 to consider a miscible flood. The studies concluded that a hydrocarbon miscible flood utilising alternate solvent-water injection could increase oil recovery to 65%. This plan was approved by the unit owners and started in 1973. In this paper the technical problems considered in by J. D. GRIFFITH and A. L. HORNE, Amoco Canada Petroleum Company Ltd., Canada the evaluation are discussed together with a description of the project installation and performance to date. 2. DESCRIPTION The South Swan Hills reservoir is a limestone reef in the Beaverhill Lake formation of middle-Devonian age with conventional reef front, lagoonal, and forereef development. Water underlies the west edge of the field and the oi

Résumé On présente les résultats originaux d'un processus de combustion in situ sur champ et des travaux de laboratoire correspondants. Un réservoir d'huile lourde est exploité par combustion sèche depuis 1964; la conduite du procédé est assurée par des techniques de champ appropriées et par des essais de laboratoire. On présente la méthode de détermination de l'efficacité de balayage lors de ce processus de combustion in situ. La récupération est améliorée en injectant de l'eau dans la zone brûlée; ce point est précisé par des résultats de laboratoire. De plus, la combustion humide a été étudiée au laboratoire et récemment appliquée sur le champ à l'échelle pilote. On a ainsi obtenu la diminution de la quantité d'air nécessaire et la régularisation de la propagation du front de combustion. Abstract The original results of an in situ combustion project and of the related laboratory work are presented. A low-gravity crude-oil reservoir has been producing by dry combustion since 1964. This combustion process has been controlled by appropriate field techniques and laboratory experiments. Sweep efficiency has been determined for this in situ combustion project. Recovery is increased by water injection into the burned-out zone; this has been correlated with laboratory results. Moreover, wet combustion was studied in the laboratory and recently tried out in the field (pilot test). The air requirement decreases and combustionfront propagation is regularised. 1. INTRODUCTION L'exploitation des gisements d'huile lourde par combustion souterraine a fait l'objet de recherches approfondies dans les laboratoires de l'Institut Français du Pétrole (IFP) et d'expériences de chantier effectuées par le Ministère des Mines, du Pétrole et de la Géologie de Roumanie (MMPG). Les recherches delaboratoireeffectuées à I'IFPdepuis by J. BURGER, Institut Français du Pétrole, 1 et 4 Avenue de Bois Préau, 92502 Rueil-Malmaison, France, GH. ALDEA, A. CARCOANA, V. PETCOVICI, I.C.P.P.G., Strada Ctilturii nr. 29, Cimpina, Roumanie, B. SAHUQUET, Institut Français du Pétrole (actuellement à la Société Nationale des Pétroles d'Aquitaine) and M. DELYE, ELF-RE, 7, rue Nélaton, 75015 Paris, France 1965 ont été plus spécialement centrées depuis 1969 sur la combustion in situ combinée à l'injection d'eau. MMPG a testé directement la combustion souterraine sur un gisement d'huile lourde grâce à un essai pilote qui a débuté en 1964; la zone exploitée par combustion a été progressivement étendue à partir de 1966. IFP et MMPG coopèrent depuis quelques années dans le domaine des méthodes thermiques. Ceci s'est traduit par la coordination des travaux de laboratoire et de chantier qui a permis d'améliorer la connaissance des techniques de combustion souterraine.

Abstract An increase in pressure up to 100 atm has been achieved by CO,-gas injection followed by water displacement in one of the depleted Budafa fields containing light oil. The injection and production well pattern is random. During the field experiment, an oilbank formed, which is indicated by the increase in production and the decrease in the water fraction. As a result of the injection the yield increased by 10%. The increase in the relative permeability and the presence of free gas saturation brings about favourable effects. CO, and water injection in 42 injection wells takes place in another reservoir with a large gas cap. Here the phase saturation at well completion must be taken into consideration. Résumé La pression dans un réservoir épuisé contenant du pétrole léger des gisements de pétrole de Budafa a été augmentée jusqu'à 100 atm par l'injection du gaz CO, suivi du déplacement du pétrole par l'eau. Les puits d'injection et de production sont disposés au hasard. Pendant l'expérience d'exploitation un bouchon de pétrole s'est formé ce qui est démontré par l'augmentation du rendement des puits et par la diminution de la fraction d'eau. La valeur du facteur de production a augmenté de 10% à la suite de l'injection. L'effet favorable est dû à l'augmentation de la perméabilité relative et à la présence de la saturation des gaz libres. Dans le cas d'un autre réservoir avec un grand chapeau de gaz, on injecte de l'eau et du CO, dans 42 puits d'injection. Ici, lors de la complétion des puits, on doit considérer les conditions de saturation. 1. INTRODUCTION Important natural gas reserves with CO,-content in Hungary create favourable conditions for an oil displacement method by CO, flooding. The secondary recovery processes using CO, and water for oil displacement in the depleted or partly depleted Budafa and Lovászi fields containing light oil have become very important. Extensive theoretical and laboratory research work has been done to determine an optimal method pertaining to depleted reservoirs using oil displacement by CO, for elucidating the mechanism of action of this method, for predicting the main technological parameters that are characteristic of the process and for planning field experiments. 2. LABORATORY EXAMINATIONS When displacing oil by CO, the oil comes into contact with the CO, and with the mixture of hydroby AKOS BAN and VALER BALINT, Candidate of Technical Sciences, Hungary carbon gases. Consequently, it is necessary to determine and use thermodynamic parameters characteristic of the mixed systems. In a PVT laboratory the following properties have been determined: gas-solving capacity of oil and water, changes of volume, viscosity and density as a function of pressure, temperature and CO,-content of the dissolved gas. The examination has been carried out from

Abstract Résumé Recent developments in perforating include new Au cours des dernières années des perforateurs and improved tools for common completion operations nouveaux et améliorés ont été développés pour les and new techniques for specialized methods. puits mis en production par les méthodes courantes. Advancements in through-tubing techniques permit Des nouvelles techniques ont été introduites pour perforating under substantially higher well head resoudre les problèmes spéciaux. pressures without loss of well bore fluids. Positioned Des progrès dans les techniques "through tubing" guns assure more uniform perforation performance permettent de perforer sous des pressions beaucoup and better operational characteristics. They are also plus élevées sans aucune perte de fluide à la surface. better adapted to perforating in gas. Another through- De nouveaux perforateurs "positionnés" assurent tubing technique permits oriented perforating of des performances plus uniformes et des operations zones between packers. Through-the-flow-line tech- plus sures. Ils sont aussi mieux adaptés aux perforaniques are also being explored. tions dans le gaz. Une méthode de mise en production Reduced shot-density trends in formations requiring multiple, au travers de plusieurs tubings, permet stimulation have promoted development of selective d'orienter les perforateurs entre deux "packers." Des firing shaped charge devices. In addition, special techniques de perforation au travers des "flow-lines" purpose guns now provide large, uniform and "burr- sont aussi en cours d'évaluation. free" holes for selective hydraulic fracturing operations. La tendance à la diminution du nombre de perfora-A method to positively locate perforations after firing tions dams les gisements exigeant une stimulation has been introduced. Furthermore, after treatment, a conduit au développement de perforateurs sélectifs à this technique indicates perforations through which charges creuses. De plus, des perforateurs spéciaux, treating fluid passed. permettent d'obtenir des trous larges, de diamètre New explosive packages solve problems of high constant et sans bavures nécessaires pour la fracturatemperature perforating of the deeper wells today, and tion artificielle. relieve, to some extent, problems of completing Une méthode efficace de détection de zones perforées steam wells. a été introduite. La même technique permet également Special techniques are being applied for sand control. de déterminer exactement les perforations ayant One uses a "shoot-and-treat" sand consolidation tool. accepté les fluides de traitement. Another uses small diameter perforations to restrict Les nouveaux perforateurs à haute température or prevent sand flow. permettent la mise en production des puits les plus Non-explosive perforating techniques are seeing profonds et aussi jusqu'à un certain point, les puits application in

Abstract. Petroleum fractions have a number of unique biological properties, several of which have not been utilized until recently. This report describes experimental work leading to the utilization of these properties and shows how the application of these fractions can increase the efficiency of agricultural production. Carefully processed paraffins and naphthenes in a selected molecular weight range are very effective in controlling Sigatoka fungus disease of banana leaves and exhibit negligible phytotoxic symptoms. Oil acts as a fungistat in disease control. Work on other crops has shown that oil alone provides some fungus disease control, but usually not at a commercially acceptable level. Selected petroleum resin products specifically formulated to form a thin black mulch film directly over seed rows promotes vigorous and uniform plant growth which results in improved yields on many crops. Mulching enhances crop response by increasing temperature and retaining moisture in the seed zone. Equipment and procedures have been developed for practical field installation of mulches. Selected fractions have also been developed as coatings for fertilizers to control rate of release of plant nutrients. Laboratory studies have explored the mechanisms of leaching and characterized the release rates for a number of coating materials. Preliminaryagronomic response data have been encouraging. Résumé. Les fractions pétrolières possèdent bon nombre de propriétés biologiques uniques dont plusieurs n'ont été utilisées que récemment. Le présent rapport décrit les travaux expérimentaux qui ont mené a l'utilisation de ces propriétés et démontre comment l'application de ces fractions pétrolières peut accroître le rendement de la production agricole. Des paraffines et des naphtènes d'une certaine gamme de poids moléculaires préparés avec soin, sont très efficaces dans la lutte contre la maladie provoquée par le fongus de Sigatoka, des feuilles de bananiers, et présentent des symptômes phytotoxiques négligeables. Le pétrole agit comme ((fongistat)) pour combattre la maladie. Des travaux effectués sur d'autres plantes ont montré que le pétrole seul possède une certaine faculté d'endiguer la maladie fongueuse, mais le plus souvent, a un degré non acceptable commercialement. Des produits résineux pétroliers, préparés spécialement pour pouvoir former directement sur les rangées de semis un paillis sous la forme d'un mince film noir, favorisent une croissance vigoureuse et uniforme de la plante, permettant ainsi d'obtenir I'amélioration du rendement des diverses récoltes. Le paillis favorise le rendement des plantes en provoquant une élévation de température et en retenant l'humidité dans la zone des semences. On a développé un appareillage et une technique pou

ABSTRACT. The 0x0 process is a method of converting olefins to aldehydes. Olefins recovered by fractionation of normal refinery streams are suitable. The aldehydes can be converted to a variety of useful products including acids, amines, and polyols, but, to date, commercial interest in the U. S. has centered mainly in the production of primary alcohols for solvent, plasticizer, and detergent use. Some of these were previously produced by other methods, but several entirely new alcohols, such as isooctyl, decyl, and tridecyl, have also been developed. A listing of experimental 0x0 products indicates that a number of families of products can be produced, similar to those now produced from acetaldehyde. The process steps are described briefly from the production of synthesis gas and hydrogen to the hydrogenation of aldehydes to alcohols. The oxonation reaction must be closely controlled and a balance maintained between carbon monoxide partial pressure and temperature to obtain optimum conversions. The hydrogenation reaction is somewhat complicated by the difficulty of removing aldehydes from the alcohol product by fractionation in those cases where the product is made up of a number of isomeric alcohols. By-products of the 0x0 process consist mainly of dimeric materials, principally aldols, acetais, and oxidation-reduction products. Isooctyl alcohol, which is representative of a complex 0x0 alcohol product, was found, by an indirect method, to consist mainly of dimethylhexauols. RESUME. Le procédé "0x0" es obtenues par le fractionneme: peut transformer les aldéhydes et des polyols, mais jusqu'à préc d'alcools primaires pour solvant! da- .rArhm Le procédé est brièvemeni jusqu'à l'hydrogénation des aldt soin et un équilibre doit être temuérature, afin d'obtenir le n plusieurs alcools isomériques, la de séparer les aldéhydes de I'alca it une méthode de transformation des ol8fines en aldéhydes. Les oléfines nt des débits normaux de raffinerie conviennent à cet effet. On en une variété de produits utiles comprenant des acides, des amines rent aux Etats-Unis on a été principalement interessé par la production 9, plastifiants et détergents. Quelques-uns de ces alcools étaient obtenus lllllGn lG1llGaiinla Fan u-a riiGciiades différentes mais plusieurs nouveaux alcools, tels que l'alcool isooctylique, décylique et tridécyliqne, qui n'existaient pas auparavant ont été également produits. L'examen des produits de carbonylation obtenus par la méthode 0x0 montre des groupes de produits analogues à ceux fabriqués à base d'acétaldéhyde. t décrit depuis la production du gaz de synthèse et de l'hydrogène khydes en alcools. La réaction de carbonylation doit être contrôlée avec maintenu entre la pression partielle de l'oxyde de carbone et la iaximum de conversion. Lorsque le produit de tran

SYNOPSIS. The ever-growing tendency towards transmitting greater power through mechanism of smaller unit size throws an increased responsibility on the lubricant to cope with the greater surface loading, and often also greatly increased sliding velocities. Mineral lubricating oils alone cannot in many cases hope to den1 with this problem which can only be met by blending into the lubricant chemical additives. The problem then remains of specifying and testing the compounded lubricant to be used for any particular application. Chemical and physical specipcations brl themselves have long been proved to be useless, and in the case of crankcase oils the answer has been found to lie in a speclfication based on lubricant performance in certain engine tests. This specification is now almost universally adopted by the Armed Forces of the Northern Atlantic Treaty Powers as well as by a considerable bodyofcommercial users and ?nanufacturerS. At first sight it might seem easier to specify and test a gear lubricant than a crankcase lubricant, but experienre of the American oil industry over many years has conclusively shown that gear lubricants can only be tested in their full-scale applications and that there are two distinct conditions to satisfy, i. e. a high-torque, low-speed condition, where gear failure is by surface deformation or rippling, and a high-speed condition where failure is by actual "pick-up" or scufl'zng between the mating surfaces. Each condition rpquires completely different properties from the oil and the two are not necessarily compatible. As a result of this experience. there is in the USA an Ordnance Specification for "Universal" or "Multi-Purpose" gear lubricants, hased on the satisfactory performance of an oil on two full-scale axle tests. Such oils are "satisfactory for the lubrication of automotive gear units, heavy duty industrial type enclosed units, steering gpars etc.". This paper traces the development of a British Specification No. CS. 2758 which uses British components for full-scale tests and which is accepted by the American Army Ordnance as being of equivalent quality level to their own MIL- L-2105 Universal Gear Lubricant Specification. The paper shows how impossible it is to judge from results obtained on many of the most commonly used laboratory small-scale test machines whether or not an oil is likely to prove satisfactory in service. Additive depletion has long been a topic for discussion when considering the use of treated oils and the author shouis the influence of additive depletion with running lime on the load-carrying capacity of a "multi-purpose" sulphur chlorine phosphorus gear lubricant both with respect to new and run-in gears. The conclusion is drawn that the eflective load capacity of the gear and lubricant combination is not

SYNOPSIS. A better understanding of the factors affecting design and operation of plate columns has resulted by consideration of the individual mass transfer rates in the gas phase and in the liquid phase. The important design and operating variables aflect column operation differently depending upon the control1in.g transfer rate. Qua.ntitatiue relationships are shown for prediction of plate enciencies as a function of the physical properties of the system, the gas and liquid rates, the liquid depth, and the tray layout. Of the many recent developments in design of vapor-liquid contactors, one of the most widely used is the sieve plate. A comparison is made of allowable throughput rates and plate emciencies for sieve and bubble cap trays. RI%UMB. Une meilleure estimation des facteurs influant sur la construction et le fonctionnement des colonnes à plateaux a résulté de l'étude des taux de transfert de masse soit en phase gazeuse, soit en phase liquide. L'influence du dessein et du mode de fonctionnement de l'appareillage sur le rendement dépend essentiellement du taux de transfert quì contrôle l'opération. Les auteurs exposent les relations quantitatives permettant d'évaluer l'eflcacité d'un plateau en fonction des propriétés physiques du système, des proportions de gaz et de liquide, du niveau du liquide et de la configuration du plateau. Parmi les plus récents développements des systèmes de mise en contact des vapeurs et des liquides, un des plus utilisés est le plateau perforé. Une comparaison entre l'eflicacité des plateaux classiques et celle des plateaux perforés est faite pour des débits usuels. RIASSUNTO. L'esame distinto del valore del trasporto di massa in fase liquida e in fase gassosa ha permesso di approfondire la conoscenza dei fattori che inpuenzano la progettazione ed il funzionamento delle colonne a piatti. Le variabili che interessano la progettazione e il funzionamento di una colonna ne influenzano il lavoro in modo diverso a seconda di quale è il coemciente di trasporto dominante. Sono riportate le relazioni quantitati.ve che permettono di prevedere il rendimento dei piatti in funzione delle proprietà fisiche del sistema, delle portate di gas e di liquido, dello spessore dello strato liquido e della disposizione del piatto. Il piatto ((a setaccio D è uno dei numerosi recenti progressi nelle apparecchiature di contatto gas-liquido, largamente entrati in uso. Viene fatto un confronto tra portate massime e rendimento dei piatti a setaccio e di quelli a campanelle. (') University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USA. (* *) Engineering Research Laboratory, E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, Wilmington, Delaware, USA. 72 PROCEEDINGS FOURTH WORLD PETROLEUM CONGRESS-SECTION III/B Introduction Fractional distill

SYNOPSJS. This paper discusses the improvements made in the Thermofor Catalytic Cracking (TCC) process since 1951. These developments malee possible substantial increases in reactor and kiln capacities while still maintaining the high cracking elficiency inherent in the TCC process, The authors discisss the improved mixed-phase feed technique currently being used in several commercial units. The causes and eflects of heavy metals poisoning are discussed; showing how metals are selectively removed from the system with the catalyst fines. Data are presented for processing a wide range of charge stocks to produce a uariety 01 products. In conclicsion, the authors discuss the ability of the TCC to fit any practical refinery processing scheme. They present refinerg yields for four typicnl processing plans based on, n 30,000 barrel per day refinery processing Mid-Continent crude. RIESUMÉ. Cette c'tiide traite les améliorations obtenues dans le procédé de cracking catalytique Thermofor (TCC) depuis 1951 jusqu'ci nos jours. Ces développements ont permis d'obtenir une augmentation importante de la capacité de l'appareil de réaction et du régénérateur sans changer la haute emcacité de cracking caractérisant le procédé Thermoior. Les Auteurs discutent la techniqu, e améliorée d'alimentation en phase mixte, employée couramment dans plusieurs unités industrielles. On y discute aussi les causes et les effets de I'empoisonnewzent par les métaux lourds; on souligne comment on arrive cì une élimination sélective de crs métaux avec les finrs du catulyseur. On présente des données relatives au traitement d'une vaste gamme des charges afin d'obtenir une grande série de produits. Pour terminer, les Auteurs discutent de la possihiliib, pour le procédé TCC d~ s'adapter aux divers schémas de mise en &imP du p6trolr brut utilisba en rnmnerie. On y prPsentr Pnpn des wndrments obtenus dans unf romnerie d'une capacité joiirnalière (Ir 30.000 barils (5.000 ma environ). Ces rendements correspondent nu Sraitmmt d'm pbtrole hrmt Mid-Continent sirirÍrnt 4 schbnzns dr msp pn opuiw. RIASSUNTO. Sono discussi i progressi tecn.ici del processo Thermofor Catalytic Cracking (TCC) dal 1951 ad oggi, progressi che hanno reso possibile di aumentare notevolmente la capacita del reattore e del rigeneratore pur naantenendo l'alta elficienwa di cracking caratteristica del processo TCC. Gli AA. discutono i progressi realizzati nella tecnica di alimentazione in fase mista adottata correntemente in diversi impianti industriali. Sono poi esaminate cause ed effetti dell'avuelenamento del cataìizzatore da metalli pesanti, mostrando come tali metalli vengano eliminati selettivamente dal sistema, insiemr api fini di catalizzatore. Vengono presentati dei dati sul trattamento di cariche diverse per otte

THE results obtained in producing lubricating oils, especially those of high viscosity, by refining according to the Edeleanu process, are shown in the form of tables. In particular two new variations of this process are described, consisting in the treatment with liquid sulphur dioxide at increased temperatures, or with mixtures of liquid sulphur dioxide with benzole. A modern Edeleanu plant permits of the employment of pure sulphur dioxide as well as of various mixtures of benzole and sulphur dioxide as extraction agents and accordingly becomes so flexible that any mineral oil products, from gasoline to heavy lubricating oil, can be put through. Finally, based on practical motor tests it is demonstrated that extraordinarily good motor oils can be produced by the Edeleanu process, even when starting from not particularly favourable distillates. The application of the Edeleanu process to the refining of kerosines has been known for a long time and has been accepted by the industry throughout the world. The process has also been applied to the refining of lubricating oils, and several lubricating oil plants have been operating for many years, principally in the United States. Recent developments in the design of motors, increasing compression ratios, which necessarily increase also the bearing pressures, required more highly refined motor oils and new specifications. In view of this tendency, modifications of the Edeleanu process have been developed which have increased the flexibility of the process and now enable the refiner to meet every possible specification. It may therefore be desirable to submit some results of the Edeleanu treatment of lubricating oils which have partly been obtained from oils on the European market. The advantages of the Edeleanu process, using liquid sulphur dioxide, which is an extremely selective solvent of low price and of easy manufacture anywhere, low viscosity combined with high specific gravity and low boiling point (from which follows that it can most readily be recovered from all kinds of oils), are naturally retained by the new processes. They are even increased by the two new modifications: extraction by means of benzole-S02-mixtures and extraction at increased temperatures. The new plants are designed in such a manner that they are equally suitable for carrying out not only the new but also the old method of treating. The plant has been given the greatest flexibility. All products from gasoline to the heaviest residual oils can be refined in one plant which can be changed from one product to the other in the shortest time. The plant is therefore capable of the most general application and also has the greatest adaptability for meeting any future market developments. It is certain that the physical separation of mineral oils and their fractions will be necessary regardless of the products