Abstract Unconventional gas may be characterized as a natural gas which cannot be produced and processed in a conventional manner. Often this relates to the reservoir type or the gas composition. Shale, tight or sour gas reservoirs are a prominent examples. Up to 10% of the world's gas reserves are estimated to be high in nitrogen content, unsuitable for pipeline use without treatment. Nitrogen in many cases coincides with the presence of helium, an important noble gas which is exclusively produced from natural gas. The Amur Gas Processing Plant presently constructed by Gazprom Pererabotka Blagoveshchensk, its general contractor NIPIgas and the technology supplier Linde Engineering in the Russian Far East will be one of the world's largest gas processing plant with a feed gas capacity of 42 billion Nm 3 /a. It features nitrogen rejection, helium recovery and liquefaction and is a key element to value chain to monetise the untapped giant reservoirs of Chayanda and Kovikta. Both reservoirs represent the resource basis for the new-built Power of Siberia Pipeline for the first time connecting the Russia's natural gas wealth to the populous China. This paper lays out the particular features of monetizing an unconventional high helium and nitrogen feed gas and how the Amur Gas Processing Plant adds value through an efficient, environmentally friendly concept, by utilizing all available value streams, safeguarding reliable supplies of natural gas, helium and petrochemical feedstock.

Abstract Notwithstanding the odd reduction owing to specific financial or economic situations, the demand for hydrocarbons has grown steadily in the past and is set to follow the same trend in the future. In parallel to the increase in demand, the production from mature fields is regularly decreasing. The upstream oil industry now faces a major challenge to increase production through the continuous development of new hydrocarbon fields. The need to satisfy the world's growing thirst for hydrocarbons means producing from oil and gas fields at ever greater depths (deeply buried reservoirs), or under ever deeper water depths (-ultra- deep offshore). Our industry has begun to tackle developments that require considerable technological boldness to produce: ? either deeply buried reservoirs characterised by High Pressures and High Temperatures (HP/HT) with all the problems generated by these extreme conditions, ? or reservoirs located at great water depths: these fields have to be developed; sometimes satellite reservoirs have to be tied back to a very distant processing unit, while coping with the difficulties of producing more and more viscous oils. Through use of representative examples this session will illustrate some of the technical challenges that our industry has experienced, or still has to face, the ground-breaking solutions that have already been found, and the innovations we hope to see in the next few years.

Summary Since 1996, Methanex Corporation and Synetix Inc. have been cooperating on the development of a new synthesis gas process based on reforming in an integrated gas-to-gas heat exchanger, the so-called Advanced Gas Heated Reformer or AGHR. This has resulted in the construction and operation of a flexible materials demonstration plant at Methanex Corporation's methanol production plant located in New Plymouth, New Zealand, and the development of some new analytical techniques for the rapid determination of metal dusting resistance in materials. Initial results from this facility have been evaluated together with previous operating experience that Synetix has with the basic technology in Ammonia synthesis plants, to provide Methanex with the confidence to push ahead with the design of a full-scale methanol plant at it's new production site on the Burrup Peninsula in Western Australia. The benefits of the technology are increased gas efficiency, significantly reduced unit capital costs, scale increase, and lower operating costs as a result of improved reliability. The technology being demonstrated depends wholly on some breakthrough technology in materials of construction to avoid metal dusting as the key piece of equipment, the AGHR, is operating totally in the known metal dusting region. Methanex and Synetix believe that confirmed success with this technology will open up opportunities for further expansion of methanol and methanol derivative scale as well as the potential for the use of the technology as the synthesis gas step in the production of Fischer Tropsch liquids. The technology will also contribute to the more rapid development of technologies for other chemical synthesis based on methanol and DME such as Methanol to Olefins, Gas to Olefins and the Methanol to Propylene technology being promoted by Lurgi Oel and Gas. This paper covers some of the history of development and the current state of the technology and some comparisons of expected results with conventional steam reforming and other synthesis gas technologies. History of In 1996, Methanex Corporation undertook an evaluation of current and developing synthesis gas Development technologies with a particular reference point based on its unique position as the operator of nine different methanol plants based in North America, Chile and New Zealand. The plants had similar operating performance histories and, in particular, had all lived through at least one major event that caused significant shutdowns and repair costs. We also had an extensive history of general maintenance issues effecting the reliability and on-stream time of methanol plants. The way in which the company had come together also brought together a number of operating philosophies and basic steam reforming technologies so that the commonality could be ascr

Abstract. This paper begins by reviewing the Claus/ modified-Claus processes which have been the workhorse for sulphur recovery in gas processing plants and refineries. Then, the paper discusses the modifications and additions made to the process in order to improve the sulphur recovery from the 92- 98% range all the way to the 99.8+% range. Schematics for these improved processes are included in the paper. In closing, the development status is provided for two processes targeting the 99.5% recovery level at a much lower capital cost than current technology allows. by using other additions or adaptations to INTRODUCTION ensure sufficient temperature in the main This paper deals mainly with the burner to maintain a stable flame (such as the additions that have been made to what is addition of acid gas and air preheat and the use referred to as the modified-Claus process to of a split-flow line-up, where up to 60% of the increase sulphur recovery over the past years: acid gas feed is bypassed directly to the first Claus stage). · Subdewpoint processes The modified-Claus process (often · Selective oxidation processes called an Sulphur Recovery Unit or SRU) has · Tail gas clean-up processes been in use in the gas processing and refinery industries for over 50 years now. THE CLAUS PROCESS Between two and four Claus stages The Claus process involves the reaction of have been used, depending upon the sulphur oxygen with hydrogen sulphide (H2S) to make recovery requirements or the downstream sulphur and water. The process was developed processing units (if any). in London by chemist Carl Freidrich Claus and Sulphur recoveries range from 90- patented in 1883. The process is very 95% for a two-stage unit to 96-98% for a fourexothermic in nature and is limited to the 5-6 stage unit. volume % H2S content range in the acid gas SUBDEWPOINT PROCESSES feed in order to keep the reactor outlet temperature to less than the 340 to 370 oC The subdewpoint processes increase (650 to 700 oF) range (the practical limit for recovery by operating one or more Claus carbon steel). converters at below the sulphur dewpoint in order to maximize sulphur recovery. The THE MODIFIED-CLAUS PROCESS sulphur will be absorbed into the catalyst in In 1938, I.G. Farbenindustrie A.G. in this low temperature operation and necessitates Germany made an important modification the intermittent regeneration of each bed in (addition) that allowed for the handling of acid order to remove the sulphur, typically once per gases containing more than 6 volume % H2S. day per bed. The modification involved adding a thermal In subdewpoint mode, the acid gases stage ahead of the Claus reactor(s). This from the upstream sulphur condenser are sent thermal stage typically includes a main burner, directly to the s

Abstract. Modeling and simulation of oil and gas recovery and processing is used extensively to investigate and define project viability and make improvements in upstream and midstream assets. Nothing is usually known about ultimate performance, operability, stability, or control constraints using process (only) modeling. In most cases, only steady state modeling is used, producing more questions than answers. The ability to extend models into a dynamic mode complete with simulated control and optimization has been unattainable, due to diverse technology, high integration cost and capital control commitments well in advance of potential viability. Yet, the ability to dynamically model a complex control strategy and optimization with the process model can make a significant difference in determining economic viability and ROI. And the database derived from the model can become the design specifications for the process, automation, optimization and safe operation of the process, thereby decreasing the risk. This session walks the attendees through the dynamic modeling of a gas plant process, control, operation and optimization to produce a uniform design database and specification at an economic cost. INTRODUCTION Computer-based process modeling has been a mainstay of process design for many years. Innovation in process modeling has continued to progress with new computer power, sophisticated algorithms and color visualization. This has resulted in new and attractive process enhancements that provide increased production, lower cost and higher quality. In spite of this progress, little has been done to date to merge real-time control and optimization at the modeling stage. The primary barriers to this obvious direction have been both technical and professional. On the technical side, real control systems were built with proprietary hardware and software making low cost integration to process models difficult and expensive. This barrier has been removed with the newest control technologies. On the professional side, process and control engineers operated in different worlds with little common ground to unite their efforts. Whole industry segments evolved to exploit the differences, resulting in high cost process and control trainers on a customized basis. Easier tools that configure both process and control models are now reshaping this segment, to allow the two disciplines to learn and share their expertise. The results of these changes have created a new breed of integrated solutions characterized as a Virtual Process & Control Systems (VPACS). VPACS is an integrated set of software tools that allows configuration of continuous process unit operations and associated regulatory/discrete control, operator interface and predictive control in software without the need fo

Abstract. IFP has developed and patented a new technique for natural gas treatment which integrates in a unique process, dehydration, NGL extraction and acid gas removal. This new process, called IFPEXOL, which has been developed with the support of the Commission of the European Communities, is based on a new implementation of a single physical solvent at low temperature. The principle is to take benefit from the necessary refrigeration of the gas for NGL extraction to achieve simultaneously a solvent treatment for dehydration and acid gas removal. IFPEXOL includes new concepts which patents have been applied for; a new method for solvent regeneration has been particularly developed, which avoids the need for distillation. Compared to the conventional techniques for dehydration, NGL recovery and acid gas removal, which are usually implemented successively and have been essentially developed for on-shore applications, IFPEXOL leads to very significant savings in terms of investment, weight and plot space. Moreover, the IFPEXOL process presents also the advantage of being environmentally safe and eliminates aromatics emission. IFPEXOL has been fully investigated first at the laboratory scale and then tested on a 5000 Sm3/day pilot plant at the IFP development center of Solaize. The first industrial IFPEXOL unit has been installed in Canada on the East-Gilby gas field, where Petro-Canada decided to convert an existing plant which employed MEG injection and refrigerated processing; the unit, which treats 0.8 Mm3/d of gas, has been switched to IFPEXOL in June 92. The second industrial unit has started in fall 92 in Texas for Marathon. Natural gas, gas associated with crude oil, gases used for petrochemical manufacture, and other industrial gases must be treated to remove undesirable impurities and condensable hydrocarbons in order to meet pipeline and consumer specifications. The treatment steps normally used are expensive to install and require large amounts of energy to operate, energy which could otherwise be sold to the customer. Energy-efficient processes costing less to build continue to hold top priority, and the IFPEXOL, process goes far in meeting these needs. IFPEXOL integrates the above treatment steps into a two-part process, IFPEX-1 and IFPEX-2. The same solvent is used in both processes, and either process can be used alone if need be; IFPEX-1 is used for dew point control, dehydration, and hydrate protection, whilst IFPEX-2 is used for acid gas removal. To determine the project's feasibility, a 5000 standard cubic meter per day pilot plant was constructed at the Institut Français du Pétrole's Research and Development Centre in Solaize, France. IFPEX-1 FOR CONDENSABLE HYDROCARBONS AND WATER REMOVAL A slipstream of feed ga

Abstract. With the growing gas demand for the coming years and the rising cost of labour and construction, emphasis has been put on improving the economics of gas projects by reducing the Capital and Operations Expenditure. The result of the considerable on going effort has paved the way for breakthroughs in many different areas of the Processing of Cias. Innovation has enabled the producers to reduce significantly the processing on site. The awareness of the cost of utilities has brought more efficient designs of processes leading also to savings on Capital. This paper reviews some of the areas in which progress has been made and where more is expected to come. This ranges from subsea well head technology, two phase flows, unmanned production, to Research and Development on new products, chemicals and metallurgy. The industry can face the challenge of the coming years with such improvements over the past technology. 1. INTRODUCTION The perspectives of the world primary energy demand for the years 1990 and 2005 (Fig. 1) indicate that the share of Natural Gas is constantly increasing. This is all the more true for the European gas demand which is expected to increase by 50% by 2010. Analysing both the current situation and the perspective world wide of the gas industry for the next decade, there appears a consistent trend of simultaneous increase in reserves, production and world consumption. As has been highlighted in other sessions of this conference, the Natural Gas Industry will face a serious challenge to meet the spiralling cost of supply in a particularly difficult economic context. Fortu- 1990 2005 Source = EEC Fig. 1. Primary energy world demand. nately for the Natural Gas Industry one of its assets is its ability to challenge constantly its limitations by a continuous effort in Research and Development. In this respect, capital costs have fallen by 25% since 1986 when the drop in oil prices initiated a fundamental reappraisal of everything that was being spent. This reduction has been made possible thanks to a considerable effort of the industry in Research and Development (R&D) to meet the challenges. It is estimated' that a further reduction of 30% in Capex and 50% in Opex could be achieved within the next 20 years. A few years ago, innovation meant improvement of know-how to produce more difficult fields whereas it now means improvement of the latter to produce at a lesser cost. The main parameters affecting cost reduction in projects are the following: – A good project definition – Extended use of satellite developments – Process minimization – Reduction of manning A good project definition. Since pre-project studies only account for a very small amount (circa 0.5%) of the total project

Abstract. Charged by the Saudi Arabian Government with managing the largest national oil reserves on earth, Aramco is the primary conduit of modern petroleum technology to Saudi Arabia. Beyond this, the company has evolved detailed strategies for indigenous manpower development. Numerous programmes were established early on to develop the expertise of Saudi employees in industrial, technical, professional and managerial skills. In the post-1970 oil boom, these programmes were further expanded to the point where very substantive transfers have been accomplished on a large scale, even in the face of marked technological advancements in the industry. The recent slowdown has enabled the company to rapidly consolidate these gains. As a result, the company is passing through the operational and maintenance stages of technology transfer and is building up to a third stage at which original applications and technology substitutions can be made. An important boost to this process came with the construction in Dhahran of a major geoscience centre and the shift to Saudi Arabia of all exploration and petroleum engineering activities. At this facility, which became fully operational in 1984, the beginnings of stage-three technology transfer are already manifest. Résumé. Aramco, chargé par le gouvernement d'Arabie Saoudite de gérer les plus grandes réserves nationales de pétrole du monde, constitue la principal vecteur pour apporter la technologie pétrolière moderne à l'Arabie Saoudite. De plus, la compagnie a élaboré des stratégies détaillées pour le développement de la main d'oeuvre locale. De nombreux programmes ont été établis très tôt pour développer la compétence des travailleurs saoudiens dans les domaines industriels, techniques, professionnels et gestionnaires. Pendant la période de prospérité pétrolière, après l'année 1970, ces programmes ont encore été élargis. Cela a permis d'importants transferts malgré les notables progrès techniques de l'industrie. Le récent ralentissement pétrolier a permis à la compagnie de consolider ces gains. De la sorte, après les étapes du transfert technologique dans le domaine de l'opération et de la maintenance, la compagnie entame la troisième étape comportant des applications originales et des substitutions technologiques. La construction à Dhahran d'un important centre de sciences de la Terre et le déplacement à l'Arabie Saoudite de toutes les activités d'exploration et d'ingénierie pétrolières représentent un notable progrès dans cette voie. Le fonctionnement de ce centre, devenu entièrement opérationnel en 1984, est une preuve manifeste des débuts du transfert technologique à trois étapes. 1. INTRODUCTION Aramco is charged by the Government of Saudi Arabia with managing the largest national petroleum reserves on earth. In this capacity,

Abstract. There are more than fifty types of coal gasifiers at various stages of development or in commerciai use. The principal gasifiers using steam and oxygen are classified as fixed-bed, fluidized bed, entrained flow and other processes. The gasifiers, their development history and current status, and their general features with respect to feedstocks, operability and performance are described. Applications of the main types of gasifier for synthesis gas, power generation and substitute natural gas (SNG) are assessed. Each type has features that make them suitable for particular feedstocks and applications. For SNG, fixed-bed gasifiers that produce a high methane content gas have advantages, and for synthesis gas, entrained flow reactors that yield virtually no methane, have merit. The large number of gasifiers and the many applications makes comparison on a common basis difficult. Where possible, comparisons are made of efficiency and overall costs using data reported in the literature. Résumé. I1 existe plus de cinquante types de gazogène fonctionnant au charbon à différents stades de développement ou en usage commerciai. Parmi les principaux gazogènes utilisant la vapeur et l'oxygène on distingue ceux à lit fixe, à lit fluidisé, à flux entraîné et à d'autres procédés. On étudie les gazogènes, l'histoire de leur développement, leurs état actuel et leurs caractéristiques générales au niveau des charges, de la faisabilité et du rendement. On évalue les applications des principaux types de gazogènes pour la production de gas de synthèse, d'électricité et de gaz naturel de substitution (GNS). Chaque type a des caractéristiques le rendant particulièrement adapté à certaines charges et applications. Les gazogènes à lit fixe qui produisent un gaz à haute teneur en méthane présentent des avantages pour le GNS et les réacteurs à flux entraîné qui ne produisent pratiquement pas de méthane sont intéressants pour le gaz de synthèse. Le grand nombre de gazogènes et de leurs applications rendent difficile une comparaison sur une base cemmune. Quand cela est possible, on fait des comparaisons de rendement et de coûts globaux à partir de données trouvées dans la littérature. 1. INTRODUCTION There are in excess of fifty types of coal gasifier at The rapid escalation of oil prices in 1973-1974 and 1979-1980 demonstrated to the industrial world the need for conservation and for a wider diversity of energy sources. Of the fossil fuels, coal is by far the most abundant. By gasification, coal can be upgraded to a more convenient energy form that can be readily purified for use directly as a fu

Abstract. The rates of liquefaction of the Kansko-Achinski Coal at the beginning and end of the hydrogenation process differ by an order of magnitude or even more. For example, up to 50-60% of the organic mass of coal is transformed into liquid products during a contact time of about 10 minutes, whereas full conversion of the coal occurs during a contact time of more than one hour, the amount of asphaltenes formed in the liquid products being insignificant. The organic material which remains, together with heavy oils and asphaltenes after partial coal hydrogenation, can be used to produce hydrogen by means of a gasification process. To make the gasifying step more intensive, steam-oxygen gasification can be employed with the steam being preheated to rather high temperatures and liquid slag removed. According to the hydrogen balance the excess amount of synthesis gas can be utilized as a fuel gas. The combination of the short contact time liquefaction of coal and gasification enhances the overall efficiency. Résumé. Le taux actuel de liquéfaction du charbon provenant du bassin houillier de Kansko-Achinski a augmenté d'un ordre de grandeur, ou même plus, depuis la première mise en oeuvre du procédé d'hydrogénation. Par exemple, jusqu'à 50 ou 60% des matières organiques du charbon sont transformés en produits liquides pendant un temps de séjour d'environ 10 minutes, tandis qu'avec un temps de séjour de plus d'une heure, on obtient la conversion complète, la quantité d'asphaltènes formés dans les produits liquides étant insignifiante. On peut utiliser les matières organiques restant avec les huiles lourdes et les asphaltènes, après l'hydrogénation partielle du charbon, pour produire de l'hydrogène au moyen d'un procédé de gazéification. Pour rendre plus performante l'étape de gazéification, on peut employer la gazéification à la vapeur et à l'oxygène, la vapeur étant préchauffée à des températures élevées et les scories liquides étant éliminées. Selon le bilan d'hydrogène, on peut utiliser l'excédent de gaz de synthèse comme source énergétique gazeuse. La combinaison de la liquéfaction du charbon avec un temps de séjour réduit et de la gazéification augmente le rendement global du procédé. INTRODUCTION Ccod = cost of ton of coal; A special round table discussion at the Tenth World Petroleum Congress was devoted to the economics of synfuel production. The discussants determined

Abstract. Light ends processing has been given special attention by refiners and the petrochemical industry in the last few years because of changing supply and product specifications. This review paper deals with new developments in LPG and NGL recovery, separation and use, with trends in light liquid products processing such as isomerization, isomer separation, reforming, hydrocracking, hydrotreating, alkylation and dimerization, and continues with the C4 and C5 olefins' use and production. The paper also shows possibilities for the production of non-conventional gasoline components which can possibly be produced from other raw material resources than petroleum. The availability and use of alcohols (methanol and ethanol), of methyl-tert-butyl ether and the possibility of the revival of Fischer-Tropsch technology are discussed. Special attention is paid to the relations between technical and economic developments in the light ends range. The outlook shows that significant changes are likely to take place in the future in this field. Résumé. Pendant les dernières années le développement du traitement des fractions légères a attiré l'attention de l'industrie du raffinage et de la pétrochimie en raison des changements dans l'approvisionnement en essence et dans les spécifications des produits. Cette communication se rapporte aux nouveaux développements dans la récuperation, la séparation et l'utilisation du GPL et du GNL, et aux tendances du traitement des fractions légères liquides comme l'isomérisation, la séparation des isomères, le reformage, l'hydrocraquage, l'hydrotraitement, l'alkylation et la dimérisation. Ou étudie égaiement l'utilisation et la production des oléfines (C4 et CJ. Ce dossier examine aussi les possibilités de production de combustibles non-conventionnels obtenus à partir de matières premières non-petrolières. La disposibilité et l'utilisation des alcools méthanol et éthanol, methyl-tert. butyl-éther et la possibilité d'une renaissance de la technique Fischer-Tropsch sont discutées. Une attention spéciale est accordée aux relations entre les développements techniques et économiques dans le domaine du traitement des fractions légères. Dans l'avenir on peut attendre des changements importants dans ce domaine. INTRODUCTION In the last few years the petroleum industry has been faced by an increasing number of problems such as higher crude prices, changing crude qualities, changing product demand pattern, changing product specifications, and others. While a great deal of attention has been given to what we call the bottom of the barrel, the other side, the light ends, have had their share too. This is understandable as, on the side of the light products, not only petroleum refiners but also the petrochemical industry with all its problems

The manufacture of clean fuel gases from hydrocarbon or carbonaceous feedstocks covers a wide field of both processes and feedstocks used in these processes. Light hydrocarbon feedstocks can be converted into fuel gases by catalytic processes (steam reforming) at relatively low costs in terms of capital requirement and energy consumption. Conversion of heavier and residual hydrocarbon fractions into fuel gases can be carried out by first converting these heavy fractions into lighter fractions suitable for the steam reforming process. Alternatively, the heavy fractions can be converted directly into a clean fuel gas by the non-catalytic partial oxidation process. This process, using either oxygen or air as the oxidising medium, converts the fuel into a gas mainly consisting of hydrogen and carbon mono oxide. The feedstocks considered for the partial oxidation process can be heavy residual fuel oil, petroleum coke or coal. The paper by W. L. LOM et aZ. (presented by Dr G. MOSS) summarises economic and technical aspects of alternatives for the conversion of liquid petroleum products of medium to light sulphur content into clean gaseous fuels. As feedstocks LPG, naphtha, middle distillates, fuel oil and crude oil are considered. It is concluded that if SNG is the required product naphtha reforming is economically the most attractive way, while for low caloric value fuel gas production gasification of fuel oil and crude oil could be a good choice. The paper by Dr K. MORIKAWA et al. reviews the progress of process technology for the manufacture of SNG by catalytic low temperature steam reforming of light petroleum fractions. It was concluded that this type of SNG production is suitable for base load only if feed hydrocarbons are available at low prices (SR products), but is more likely to be used for an efficient peak-shaving plant (low capital costs and high reliability). The principle of fuel gas and SNG production from light liquid products was challenged by Mr B. CHAPOTEL (Compagnie Française de Raffinage). Gasification, in his opinion, will give rise to a loss of energy (10–15%) and light liquid products will be urgently needed for other applications in the future. Light liquid petroleum products can also easily be desulphurised, distributed and burned with less extra energy loss. It was stated by Dr MOSS, however, that, because gas burning is 5 % to 10 % more effective than liquid product combusion, the extra energy loss due to gasification is partially counteracted, leaving only an extra loss of 5% to lu%. This loss of energy has to be balanced against the advantages of using gas in each separate application. Clearly for heavy feedstocks such as pitch and coke (and coal) gasification will, in many cases, be attractive as a possibil

INTRODUCTION AND ALTERNATIVE SCHEMES Abstract This paper describes a method for the multi-stage combustion of high-sulphur residual fuel oils in thermal power stations which ensures minimum contamination of the atmosphere. In the first stage of combustion high-pressure steam and fuel gas are produced. The latter is cooled and freed of ash and sulphur compounds. The steam and the purified gas are then used for power generation. The method gives a high rate of sulphur removal and considerable reduction of nitrogen oxide emission. This new power station concept employs gas turbines and steam/gas turbines to obtain an optimum use of energy. A discussion of its technical and economic aspects concludes the paper. Résumé Cette communication décrit un procédé de combustion en plusieurs étapes des fuels oils résiduaires à haute teneur en soufre dans les centrales thermiques permettant de réduire à un minimum l'émission de polluants dans l'atmosphère. Au cours de la première phase de la combustion, on génère de la vapeur à haute pression et on produit un gaz combustible. Ce dernier est refroidi et débarrassé des cendres et composés sulfureux. La vapeur et le gaz combustible épuré sont alors utilisés pour la production d'énergie électrique. Cette méthode permet d'atteindre un haut degré de désulfuration et une réduction considérable des émissions d'oxyde d'azote. Les centrales électriques de cette conception nouvelle mettent en oeuvre des turbines à gaz ou des combinaisons de turbines à gaz et de turbines à vapeur de façon à obtenir une utilisation optimale de l'énergie. On termine la communication par une discussion des aspects techniques et économiques des schémas proposés. 1. INTRODUCTION combined power generation cycles employing gas and steam-gas turbines entailing cuts in construction costs for power plants. These savings in power generation, even for currently operable temperature levels of working substance before it reaches the gas turbines, can make up the additional "clean" fuel costs and, as the paper shows, the cost of power at such plants preventing undesirable exhausts to the atmosphere could be lower than with modern steam-turbine power plants discharging wastes to the atmosphere. Besides, there are realistic prospects of substantially raising the working substance temperature before it reaches the gas turbines which would significantly increase their efficiency and reduce electricity costs, whereas the efficiency of steam-turbine units for a long time has remained stable at a certain level which proves that in this respect they are close to their limit. As a result of thermal power stations burning traditional energy fuels: coal and residual fuel oil, containing sulphur and ash, a lot of sulphur compounds and fly ashes, undesirable for people and the environment, are

Abstract Gases from the complete combustion of petroleum oils contain sulphur oxides. Those that form in a reducing atmosphere, such as natural gas, gas from the partial oxidation of hydrocarbons and off-gas from hydrodesulphurisation processes, contain H, S. In sulphur recovery units of the Claus type SO, and H, S occur simultaneously. The paper discusses processing techniques available to remove the sulphur compounds from each of these gases, including methods for selectively separating H, S from COz. For some alternative processes it is shown how the characteristics of a process influence its efficiency, its energy consumption, its associated secondary pollution and its economics. Résumé Les gaz résultant d'une combustion complète de produits pétroliers liquides contiennent des oxydes de soufre. Les gaz formés en milieu réducteur, comme le gaz naturel, ceux provenant d'une oxydation partielle des hydrocarbures et ceux résiduels provenant des procédés de désulfuration, contiennent de l'hydrogène sulfuré. Dans les unités de récupération du soufre du "type Claus", l'anhydride sulfureux et l'hydrogène sulfuré sont simultanément présents. Cette communication indique des procédés disponibles pour éliminer les composés sulfurés de chacun de ces gaz ainsi que les méthodes permettant la séparation sélective d'H, S du CO,. Pour quelques procédés, concurrents ont montré l'influence de leurs principaux paramètres sur l'efficacité, la consommation énergétique, la pollution secondaire et les coûts. 1. INTRODUCTION up to specification of natural or industrially produced fuel gases as far as calorific value and density are Both natural gas and industrially produced gases concerned. can contain SO, and H, S, which are potential This paper is an attempt to indicate salient features pollutants of the atmosphere. Control of their emission of the three main fields of gas treating in the realm of is demanded in many industrialised countries for the petroleum and natural gas processing, viz.: purpose of conservation of the environment. Under oxidising conditions, such as those prevailing when burning with air, sulphur appears mainly as SO,. In a reducing environment such as exists during substoichiometric combustion, duringhydroprocessing of petroleum oils or during the formation of natural gas by the decay of organic matter under the earth's surface, sulphur appears as H, S. Finally, under the neutral conditions prevailing in sulphur recovery units of the Claus type, H, S and SO, occur together. Carbon dioxide does not need to be removed from the gases for environmental reasons. In certain concentrations, however, it can interfere with the 2. FLUE GAS DESULPHURISATION removal of H, S or, more generally, with the bringing- ~~ by A. J. J. VAN GINNEKEN and J. P. KLEIN, Shell Internationale Petroleum Maatschappij B. V., Carel

Abstract The paper summarises alternatives for the conversion of liquid petroleum products of medium to high sulphur content into clean gaseous fuels. It compares the techniques used and the process economics applicable to the manufacture of lean gases and substitute natural gas from a range of liquid fuels, i.e. LPG, naphtha, middle distillates, fuel oil and crude oil. It concludes that whilst naphtha reforming for SNG production will be a first choice on grounds of lowest investment and gas service costs, the gasification of crude oil and fuel oil for lower calorific value fuel gases may also find wide application. In the longer term coal as a raw material, at least in the US, seems likely to replace both light and heavy liquid fuels. Résumé Cette communication passe en revue les différentes possibilités envisageables pour la transformation de produits pétroliers liquides, à teneur en soufre élevée ou moyenne, en combustibles gazeux propres. Elle compare les technologies et l'économie des procédés utilisés pour la fabrication de gaz pauvres, de gaz de ville et de gaz naturel de substitution à partir de plusieurs combustibles liquides, les GPL, le naphta, les distillats moyens, les gas oils, le mazout et le pétrole brut. On conclut qu'en raisons des disponibilités, l'utilisation du pétrole brut augmentera, mais que la méthode la plus économique de gazéification est le reformage du naphta. A long terme, cependant, la houille remplacera comme matière première, au moins aux Etats-Unis, à la fois les fractions légères et les fuels lourds. 1. PURPOSE OF GASIFYING Liquid petroleum fuels by comparison with gaseous fuels have a number of drawbacks including a greater tendency towards incomplete combustion, cracking and carbon formation instead of complete combustion to gaseous products. Therefore, gaseous flames are more adjustable in size and shape than liquid fuel flames, and the minimum oxidant demand to ensure complete combustion is usually lower for gases. In addition, most gases are inherently "cleaner", i.e. contain less non-hydrocarbon material, specifically sulphur compounds, than liquid fuels, and any impurities can be easily and effectively removed by various processes. Furthermore, the chemical composition of gaseous fuels is simpler than that of liquid fuels. Normally no more than four or five chemical species ~ ~ by W. L. LOM, formerly Senior ScientiJic Associate, Esso Research Centre, Abingdon, Oxon., England, and P. J. AGIUS, Director of Research, Esso Petroleum Company Ltd, London, S. W. 1, England will be present and it is thus much easier to react a petroleum gas to produce various petrochemicals than to produce chemical derivatives from liquid hydrocarbons. Finally gaseous fuels are more readily distributed by pipeline, even at low flow rates, to points of consumption. Consequently, the purposes of gas

Abstract Recent trends have prompted developments in the USA towards utilisation of its large domestic coal reserves. An important feature is coal gasification to produce clean fuel gases not only as a substitute for natural gas but also as fuel gas of lesser heating value. Comparative economics and technological status of existing and potential coal gasification processes are presented giving regard to local government pressures, regulations, and environmental considerations. Logistical problems and potential solutions to a large scale coal gasification industry are elucidated. It is expected that this relatively new clean fuel gas industry-low and intermediate Btu gas-will grow in importance in the future; the impetus for this development is highlighted. Résumé Des impératifs récents ont poussé les Etats-Unis à développer l'utilisation de ses immenses réserves de charbon. Une orientation importante réside dans la gazéification du charbon en vue de produire du gaz propre non seulement en remplacement du gaz naturel mais aussi comme gaz à bas pouvoir calorifique. Cette communication présente une comparaison économique et technologique des procédés de gazéification existants en attirant aussi l'attention sur la politique, la législation et les exigences des autorités locales en ce qui concerne l'environnement. Les problèmes de logistique et les solutions possibles pour de très grandes unités de gazéification sont également exposés. On pense que cette industrie relativement récente de production de gaz à moyen et bas pouvoir calorifique, va prendre de l'importance à l'avenir; on expose les raisons de ce développement probable. 1. INTRODUCTION During the past year, the United States has been faced with critical economic problems associated with its increasing demand for energy. The sudden interruption in world oil flow that occurred in late 1973 prompted the government to accelerate its programmes directed toward increasing the size and availability of the US domestic energy supply base. Although development of the vast coal reserves-the largest energy resource in the United States-has been considered for many years, this industrial development is now being rapidly expanded as the United States strives to achieve a position of energy independenceat least relative to the historical unchecked growth rate in the requirements for energy imports. by JOHN P. HENRY, Jr., Stanford Research Institute, Menlo Park, California, U.S.A. and BERT M. LOUKS, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, California, U.S.A. Coal, as an international fuel, far outweighs oil and natural gas as an energy resource (see Fig. 1). In fact, coal utilisation research has been conducted throughout the world since the late 1800s and early 1900s. For the most part, the research was conducted in parts of the world other than in the United States. The situation was dramatically changed, howe

Abstract Where a main process is based on physical laws, for a quantitative analysis of normal operational data it is possible to use regression analysis, preceded by preliminary data-averaging through intervals. This paper deals with the application of these principles to the examination of electrodehydrating and electrodesalting and of crude oil refinery units of different refineries. It is shown that these units are characterized by monotonous near-to-linear functions. This is the reason why it is not advantageous to develop for these units computerised control systems, operating in "advisory" or "supervisory" fashion. For oil chemical processing it is necessary to use a definite description, based upon laboratory and commercial data on process thermodynamics and kinetics, and conditions of hydrodynamics and heat transfer. This paper discusses general methods for elaboration of such models and special aspects of the thermodynamics and kinetics of oil-fractions processing. The experience is generalized to the application of the kinetics description to the analysis of catalytic reforming, catalytic cracking and alumino-silicates catalysts regeneration processes. Recommendations for controling the units are provided. by G. M. PANCHENKOV, YU. M. ZHOROV, I. M. KOLESNIKOV, O. V. CORPUSOV, V. I. LOGINOV, YU. I. LAZIAN, G. M. TATARINTZEVA, and G. A. KHALUSHA, Moscow Institute of Petrochemical and Gas Industry, Moscow B-296, Lenin Avenue 65, The Department of Physical and Colloid Chemistry, U.S.S. R. Résumé Si le procédé principal s'effectue d'après les lois physiques, il est possible d'appliquer l'analyse régressive pour faire l'analyse quantitative des résultats de l'exploitation dans les conditions normales. Dans ce cas, il est nécessaire au préalable d'examiner les données et de sélectionner les valeurs moyennes par intervalles. Dans le présent rapport on a envisagé l'application de ces principes au cours de l'examen des installations d'électro-déshydratation et électrodessalage et de distillation atmosphérique de différentes raffineries. On a montré que ces installations sont caractérisées par les fonctions monotones, proches de celles linéaires. C'est pourquoi, il n'est pas avantageux de créer pour ces installation les systèmes de calculatrices en tant que leurn conseilleur ou dirigeat. Pour les processus chimiques de transformation du pétrole il est indispensable d'utiliser la description détérminée, fondé sur les données concernant la thermodynamique, la cinétique du procédé, les conditions de l'hydrodynamique et de la transmission de la chaleur, fournis par laboratoires et par raffineries. Dans le rapport, on examine les méthodes générales d'obtention des dites modèles, les particularitées de la thermodynamique et de la cinétique

Abstract The development of steam reforming and hydrogasification processes which has led to the current revolution in fuel gas manufacture is traced. The chemical and thermodynamic principles involved and the catalyst and feedstocks employed in the major processes are discussed. Process plant in commercial use is described with references made to operating and metallurgical difficulties that have occurred. Typical cost data are provided and current research activity is reviewed. Résumé On retrace l'historique de I'évolution des procédés de "reforming" à la vapeur et d'hydrogazéification jusqu'à la révolution, à laquelle nous assistons en ce moment, pour la fabrication des gaz combustibles. Les principes chimiques et thermodynamiques mis en jeu dans les procédés principaux sont discutés, ainsi que les catalyseurs et les matières premières. On décrit les installations de traitement en service de production et l'on évoque les difficultés d'ordre métallurgique et les problèmes d'exploitation rencontrés. On donne des indications sur des é1Cments caracteristiques des prix de revient et on passe en revue l'activité actuelle dans le domaine de la recherche. In the early nineteen fifties the fuel gas industry based upon conventional carbonisation processes ceased to be economically viable in most countries. Concurrently, changes in the relative prices of hydrocarbon oils and solid gasmaking materials encouraged the search for new methods and led to the development of new hydrocarbon oil steam reforming and hydrogasification processes. The gas industry's competitive position apart from the availability and economic transmission of natural gas supplies was restored and the construction of gas making plants using solid materials virtually came to an end. Within the orbit of plentiful natural gas supplies and in the absence of local underground storage, the new processes will meet supplementary and stand-by gas requirements. and development is summarised to show that further research is being carried out on the thermodynamics and kinetics of the reforming reactions, the improvement of catalysts and other materials, construction techniques and plant development and design. The main objects are to produce more robust and flexible plants operating on a wider range of hydrocarbon oils. Finally, cost comparisons are given of solid and liquid fuel based gasification processes to show the economic advantages of the latter in capital and manufacturing costs. HISTORICAL Continuous steam reforming developments INTRODUCTION During the period 1880 to 1890 patents were granted to Tessie du Motay for hydrocarbon steam reforming In this report the historical development is traced using lime as a catalyst, and to Mond and Langer for of the continuous steam reformi

Abstract The paper notes that inasmuch as the geographic location of the principal gas resources of the USSR (eastern and southern regions) does not coincide with the main gas-consuming (central, western and northeastern) parts of the country it is necessary to build powerful gas pipeline systems. To ensure steady gas supply of major economic areas of the country the gas pipelines are linked into great integrated grids. Designing of gas supply systems involves solution of various problems of technical and technico-economic nature in connection with the development and creation of field facilities of given (oil and gas, gas and or gascondensate) fields, gathering, treatment, transportation and use of gas by various consumers, and also planning of measures to take care of gas consumption fluctuations. The paper deals with matters directly involved in pipeline gas transportation : Rational location of field gas-gathering centres and also of head installations for long-distance gas delivery. Choice of most rational configuration and parameters of the gas-gathering net. Choice of methods of treatment and preparation of gas for long-distance transportation. Determination ofthe optimal variant of the trunk gas pipeline system. Choice of technological equipment. Investigations under way in the USSR in connection with operation of gas pipelines are aimed at developing approximate and numerical methods of solving equations describing the processes of non-steady gas transmission. The results obtained permit to calculate transitional processes induced by changes in the technological operating conditions of gas pipelines and also by emergency gas leaks. The paper surveys the problem of gas treatment prior to long-distance transportation, hydrate control measures in the operation of the linear part of gas pipelines, with some concrete examples. An outline is given of the main trends in the development of pipeline gas transportation in the USSR. by I. E. KHODANOVICH, Z. T. GALIULLIN and B. L. KRIVOSHEIN, VNIIGAZ, USSR Résumé Le rapport souligne, étant donné que la répartition géographique des ressources principales du gaz naturel en URSS (Est et Midi), ne correspond pas aux régions dominantes de la consommation du gaz (Centre, Ouest et Nord-Ouest), il est nécessaire d'aménager de puissants systèmes de gaz-lines. Pour assurer I'approvisionnement en gaz des régions économiques dominantes, les gazoducs doivent former un circuit et constituer de puissants systèmes. Lors de l'établissement de projets des systèmes de conduits de gaz on résout toute une série de problèmes techniques et technico-économiques relatives à l'exploitation et à l'aménagement du gisement donne (du pétrole et du gaz, du gaz ou de condensation du gaz) à l'accumulation, au traitement, au transport et aux consommations diverses du gaz, ainsi qu'aux mesures visant à surmonter

Abstract The paper lists typical feedstocks supplied by the petroleum industry for the manufacture of town gas and synthesis gas. It discusses the chemical reactions involved in commercial gasification processes and the specifications for feedstocks most suitable for conversion. Since the availability of ideal feeds is limited, it suggests certain relaxations of specifications which will not impair either the technical feasibility or the yield of gasification. In a final section it compares the relative value as gasification feeds of a number of petroleum fractions used in different commercial processes. Résumé On décrit les différentes matières premières fournies par l'industrie du pétrole pour la fabrication du gaz de ville et du gaz de synthèse. On discute les réactions chimiques des procédés commerciaux de gazéification et les spécifications exigées des charges destinées à la gazéification. La production des charges possédant les meilleures caractéristiques étant inférieure aux besoins, on suggère certains aménagement des spécifications qui ne compromettraient pas le rendement des procédés de gazéification. Dans la dernière partie de l'exposé, on compare la valeur en tant que charge de fabrication de gaz de diverses coupes pétrolières, pour les diffé- rents procédés de gazéification. INTRODUCTION TYPES OF PETROLEUM FEEDSTOCKS While natural gases have been the mainstay of the A considerable range of petroleum feedstocks are gas distribution industry in many parts of the world, suitable for conversion to industrial and fuel gases. there are large industrial and heavily populated areas Amongst those in commercial use are, in addition to which, until recently, have had no or only limited natural gas: access to natural gas. Tn many of these areas in Europe, Japan, South America, South Africa, India and elsewhere, a gaseous fuel for pipeline distribution has been produced over many years from bituminous and similar coals. More recently the high price of coal, combined with the availability of liquid petroleum feedstocks, has resulted in the replacement of coal gas by similar gases made from petroleum. The paper deals briefly and by way of introduction with the types of feedstocks used by the gas industry in these countries; it correlates feedstock and process types by considering the chemical changes involved in gasification in the more important commercial processes; it deals with the supply of and demand for the various fractions used by the gas industry; it discusses at some length specifications set up by the gas industry and the quality of the products made by the oil industry; it finally analyses the relative value of the different feedstocks to the gas industry in the light of available conversion processes and their efficiency. Refinery gases Heavy naphtha Light fuel oil LPC propane Wide range naphtha Medium fuel oil LPG butane Kerosine Heavy