Abstract Space exploration has made significant advances over recent years. There are now many planned robotic exploration missions for the Moon, Mars and asteroids. Carrying enough fuel for future return journeys, particularly as necessary for human exploration missions poses a key challenge, or inefficiency of having to take all required fuel for return trip for the mission, incurring significant weight penalties and opportunity cost. The UAE has announced its Mars 2117 Vision , a 100 year plan, to build a habitable settlement on Mars, and in particular: "Mars 2117 aims to build the knowledge and scientific capabilities that will enable the UAE to realise humankind's universal dream of the very first sustainable settlement on the red planet within the next 100 years". Recent exploration of Mars has identified some key in-situ raw materials regarding the presence of water ice, and an atmosphere for which the major component is carbon dioxide, comprising approx. 96%. The UAE's current Emirates Mars Mission "Hope" aims to build on that knowledge and increase our understanding with respect to the Martian climate. Future missions to Mars will lead to the development of in-situ resources. The associated technologies share many synergies with terrestrial activities concerning oil, gas and the energy industries. Furthermore, it is considered that the technology development for off-world resources may have significant advantages for terrestrial industry. The associated innovations and philosophy are consistent with the UAE's National Objectives regarding the furthering of a "Sustainable Environment and Infrastructure".

Hydrogen is an essential feedstock for a variety of chemical and industrial processes. Refineries with a global share of over 30% are amongst the largest consumers. Traditional methods of generating hydrogen involve the reformation of fossil-fuel sources with the help of steam. These methods release CO 2 as a side product and are thus carbon-intensive. A zero-carbon approach of producing hydrogen can be achieved via electrolysis of water powered by surplus renewable energy sources, which in return helps to balance the intermittency of solar photovoltaic (PV) or wind. Hydrogen is also often a by-product of industrial processes. These synthetic waste gases have typically been flared in the past. Burning these gases in gas turbines instead can significantly boost the economic case and reduce carbon emissions compared to flaringbecause of the utilization of the waste energy. Gas turbines are typically designed for natural gas operation, and accommodating high levels of hydrogen poses significant challenges due to its different physical properties. First, hydrogen is the lightest molecule with a lower volumetric energy content and higher diffusivity. This has an impact on the fuel delivery system, as sealings and piping materials need to be upgraded. Second, local mixing between fuel and air may not be perfect as hydrogen flames tend to stabilize further upstream, where mixing quality is lower and are more compact. As hydrogen has a higher flame temperature, local hotspots can lead to higher NOx emissions. This, in return, may require performance adaptations to meet the local emissions standards. Perhaps the most challenging aspect of hydrogen use in turbines is its significantly higher reactivity. Hydrogen has a substantially higher flame speed (up to 10 times) and lower ignition delay time than natural gas, which increases the risk of flashback and explosions. To overcome all these challenges and guarantee safe operation with high hydrogen fuels, focused development is required, particularly with regards to the combustor. Following an iterative rapid prototyping approach, the design optimization is typically achieved via high-fidelity ComputerAided Engineering(CAE) simulations coupled with validation through high-pressure testing at engine conditions. Here, the use of Additive Manufacturing (AM) for generating prototypes has been a critical success factor in recent years. In addition to reducing the overall lead time by up to 70%, AM offers the opportunity to generate and manufacture more efficient aero designs for e.g., cooling and fuel routing schemes. This paper focuses on the use of hydrogen in gas turbines and discusses the required development steps. General challenges of accommodating hydrogen in gas turbines and the implications on design modification and operation will be examined in detail. Examples of achieving up to 100% hydrogen operation on a 25MW scale gas turbine from recent testing programs will be subsequently presented. Use cases of gas turbines operating with high hydrogen fuels in industrial processes will alsobe discussed.

The production of fuel and chemicals in many countries is based on fossil sources but concerns about reservoir limitations and greenhouse gas emissions are shifting the focus towards solutions to increase the efficiency of processes and decarbonise these markets: the objective of this paper is to provide an overview on low-carbon intensity technologies that are instrumental to the decarbonisation of the energy industry. Hydrogen is the most promising low-carbon intensity energy vector. However, it is mainly produced through hydrocarbon steam reforming which generates 9 to 12 metric tons of CO 2 per ton of produced hydrogen. A key factor in driving the energy transition and achieving a low-carbon future is therefore the potential to obtain low carbon intensity hydrogen – through carbon capture solutions producing blue hydrogen, using biofeedstocks within adapted steam reforming applications to produce biohydrogen, or via water electrolysis utilizing renewable power. The blue hydrogen technology described in this paper results in more than 90% CO 2 emissions reduction due to the integration of an advanced steam reforming solution with pre-combustion carbon capture. While blue hydrogen, which is produced from hydrocarbons, is able to significantly reduce the emissions to the atmosphere, but still produces some CO 2 , biohydrogen is instead a carbon neutral solution achived via modified steam reforming of liquid biofeedstock. This technology has the potential to be carbon negative when enhanced with a carbon capture system. Another aspect of the decarbonisation process, Substitute (or Synthetic) Natural Gas (SNG) from biomass gasification, biogas upgrading and power-to-gas systems is the most promising and immediate solution among the hydrocarbon-based fuels. SNG product has great market possibilities in refining, and automotive sectors or for injecting into pipelines for the upgrading and re-purposing of distribution networks. The product is a clean carbon alternative to conventional natural gas that can be distributed using the existing grid infrastructure. Wood is pleased to present this paper to introduce the above-mentioned technologies for hydrogen and SNG, with the aim to provide viable and alternative solutions to industrial operators who are looking to support the economy decarbonisation securely and create a more sustainable future.

Space exploration has made significant advances over recent years. There are now many planned robotic exploration missions for the Moon, Mars and asteroids. Carrying enough fuel for future return journeys, particularly as necessary for human exploration missions poses a key challenge, or inefficiency of having to take all required fuel for return trip for the mission, incurring significant weight penalties and opportunity cost. The UAE has announced its Mars 2117 Vision , a 100 year plan, to build a habitable settlement on Mars, and in particular: "Mars 2117 aims to build the knowledge and scientific capabilities that will enable the UAE to realise humankind's universal dream of the very first sustainable settlement on the red planet within the next 100 years". Recent exploration of Mars has identified some key in-situ raw materials regarding the presence of water ice, and an atmosphere for which the major component is carbon dioxide, comprising approx. 96%. The UAE's current Emirates Mars Mission "Hope" aims to build on that knowledge and increase our understanding with respect to the Martian climate. Future missions to Mars will lead to the development of in-situ resources. The associated technologies share many synergies with terrestrial activities concerning oil, gas and the energy industries. Furthermore, it is considered that the technology development for off-world resources may have significant advantages for terrestrial industry. The associated innovations and philosophy are consistent with the UAE's National Objectives regarding the furthering of a "Sustainable Environment and Infrastructure".

The historical agreement on international climate change at COP21 in Paris in December 2015 by 196 nations has accelerated the efforts to lower impact on climate change. The agreement contains the ambitious long-term global goal to limit global warming to "well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C". The International Energy Agency (IEA) has clearly stated that limiting global temperature rise to 2°C will require the energy sector to deploy carbon capture and storage (CCS). Hence, CO 2 capture and suitable CO 2 utilization option should be explored.

Material selection for sour service is generally based on International Standards. Sometimes there are project conditions that are not properly covered, therefore additional investigations are needed. This fact can arise conflictual discussions between the lay contractor and the field operator, regarding first the selection of the laboratory, and then the method and extent of the weld qualification campaign: disagreements may impact the installation schedule as well as significantly affect the operational requirements. The subject is crucial in field development projects, in both shallow and deep waters, when performance requirements are particularly demanding. In the meantime, field experience shows failure conditions in sour service due to erroneous design choices, inaccuracies during construction, unexpectedly severer flow conditions and/or poor mechanical performance of both line pipe and welds. Therefore, the upstream community is currently involved in joint industry initiatives that aim to establish international consensus on updating guidelines, aiming to include the lesson learnt from recent project outcomes. The challenges of sour service mainly regard material selection in case of long distance export pipelines from offshore fields, as well as the allowance of functional and environmental load effects on flowlines, i.e., the permissible number and entity of either few high stress cycles on high temperature high pressure flowlines or many small stress cycles on risers and free spans. In this paper an outline of sour service in offshore projects will be given, with comments on the state of the art from the designer and laying contractor's viewpoint. In particular, lessons learnt from recent experiences are discussed, in relation with the efforts for standardization currently undertaken by international certification bodies.

Five percent of the world's gas supply is currently being wasted through flaring and venting. This is equivalent to about 110-140 billion cubic metres of gas which is the combined gas consumption of Central and South America in 2014. Gas flaring releases toxic components and green-house gases into the atmosphere that can have harmful effects on the health and well-being of local communities and contribute to climate change. In 2011, the USA became the fifth largest flaring nation in the world due to associated gas being flared from oil field production with the largest amounts being flared in North Dakota. Capture of flared gas presents an opportunity to reduce the environmental impact as well as providing an economic opportunity. The gas captured can be used to create new value chains that can not only benefit the industry but also people's quality of life. Technology has been developing for many years to attempt to tackle the problem specifically where small volumes of gas are being flared. In 2014, regulations in the USA were tightened on gas flaring specifically in North Dakota with oil operators having to put in gas capture plans in place for new oil wells being drilled. Capturing the flared gas presents an opportunity for oil operators to reduce the environmental impact as well as providing an economic opportunity to generate an additional revenue stream. During 2014/2015, break-throughs were made by new suppliers coming into the market who have successfully installed new micro-LNG technology in North America to eliminate gas flaring at the well-head. Costs of the these micro-LNG technologies have reduced to the point whereby it is now possible to install these technologies cost effectively converting gas streams of less than 1 MMscfd into LNG which can either be utilised locally for drilling rigs or transported by truck to users further away. The paper will present a range of technologies, including micro LNG, Compressed Natural Gas, Natural Gas Hydrates (NGHs), conversion methods and novel concepts that could be applied to capture and utilise flared and vented gas. It will look at the techno-economic concepts of specific cases at small scale. New features of the technologies will be highlighted and economics will also be given for the different technology options.

With the increasing global awareness for the preservation of the environment, Governments became convinced that our industrial practices had an impact towards environmental deterioration through an anthropogenic climate change, which mandated Governments to demonstrate actions towards serious cutting back of carbon emissions. It is accepted that the Petroleum and Power industries are among the highest sources of Carbon Dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions and whilst they have an impressive record of constantly searching for ways to meet the energy supply with cleaner and more efficient technologies; they continue to be challenged to meet the energy demand under increasing local and global regulations to reduce their Carbon footprint forcing them to consider alternative approaches for facilities design and operation. Apart from proceeding challenge; these two industries have something else in common namely: their need for Hydrogen generation. Hydrogen demand is evidently increasing in Petroleum industries for various uses in Refineries, Petrochemicals and Fertilizer industries. Similarly; demand for Hydrogen as clean source of energy is growing in the Power industry. It is this common need for Hydrogen that directed our attention to identify an opportunity for cross industrial integration through Hydrogen production resulting in various substantial environmental & business benefits in an affordable and reliable way.

Abstract In year 2002, gas bubbles from seabed were observed around well casing at some of Upper Zakum platforms. During the investigations of this phenomenon it was noticed that the gas from the annuli (tubing X 9 5/8″ casing and 9 5/8″ casing X 13 3/8″ casing) was having high hydrogen content. Concern was raised when the hydrogen content of the analyzed gases was as high as 99%. In view of the potential risk to operators posed by this high concentration of this highly inflammable gas (H2), a multi-disciplinary team was established to investigate the source of hydrogen and subsequently to develop measures to protect the environment, personnel and ZADCO assets. The taskforce was also asked to produce an operational guideline to safely operate and work in such an atmosphere. Subsequently, chemical thermodynamics and kinetics / mass transfer models were used to identify sources of hydrogen and subsequent transfer of hydrogen from sources to the annuli. Eventually these theoretical analyses were reconciled with tubular inspection findings. These and other factors are discussed in the paper. Key words: Gas bubbles, corrosion, hydrogen, safety, environment, well integrity. 1. INTRODUCTION: The field is located offshore and it was commissioned in the early eighties. It consists of producing wells, water injection wells and wellhead platforms, satellite (gathering) platforms, a central offshore production platform and onshore processing and storage facilities. 2. BACKGROUND The presence of H2 gas in the annuli (tubing X 9 5/8″ and 13 3/8″ X 9 5/8″) of some offshore wells was discovered, while sampling for the Nitrogen bubbles problem. In view of the high potential safety hazard to operations posed by the highly flammable hydrogen a multidisciplinary team was formed to address the issue with the following objectives: Evaluate the potential risk posed to personnel and facilities Propose preventive and mitigation measures for the present conditions and later for the long term Identify the source of H2 in the wells annuli From the preliminary investigations of the selected wells, the team tried to establish whether or not there was any sort of correlation due to: Geographic location Type of material used for completion string Quality of cement jobs As no such correlation could be established, the team strategy for achieving the objectives was to split the task into two phases Securing Operations: A full set of controls and measures covering all operations were carried out by site. It included risk assessment before carrying out any surface & wire line operations, well testing and maintenance activities on the towers where the presence of hydrogen in the annuli is confirmed. Formal standing instructions were then issued, and benchmarked & adopted by other opcos after being endorsed by higher management. Identify the Source of Hydrogen Gas: The potential sources as initially assumed by the team were: Anaerobic bacteria Deficiency in cementing operations with casing subjected to high salinity aquifier water. Cathodic Protection Corrosion inside tubing with hydrogen evolution 3. Discussions Of Results / Potential Sources Of Hydrogen From the inspection results (Table 1–3) there is evidence of both internal corrosion by perforation and also external corrosion. It is noteworthy to say that all three wells experienced hydrogen evolution. Hence, an attempt has been made to review the electro-chemistry and chemical thermodynamics of CS corrosion.

Abstract The conversion of natural gas into synthetic fuel is an active area of development. Today, many large and independent oil companies as well as engineering contractors are involved in either research, pilot plants, or demonstration units with the objective of reducing capital and operating cost of this technology. Beside the technology, the economic factor of the GTL process remains the major element in the application of this process. The major factors affecting the economics of the GTL process is the gas price and the capital cost. The GTL process could be an attractive way to monetize stranded gas reserves where the application of pipeline or LNG Technology is not techno - economically feasible, because the gas is either very far from the market and/or the gas reserve can not support a world scale LNG plant. Fuel produced from the GTL process is practically sulfur and aromatics free, accordingly, exhaust emission from the GTL products is not an area of concern. As an example, exhaust emission pollutants from GTL diesel oil is much below those required by most stringent present and planned (future) specifications. However, carbon release cycle (from GTL production to consumption) is an active area of research and studies. The availability of natural gas at reasonable price, present crude oil price and the environmental benefits of using fuel products derived from natural gas has led to the realization of many commercial scale GTL units at different parts of the world particularly in Qatar which is targeting to be the centre of the GTL projects. These worldwide projects are at different stages of implementation. In this paper, an attempt was made to present the above consideration in more details for the GTL process as a route for gas monetization including a broad brush economic comparison with LNG production as an alternative competing route. Introduction Gas-to-liquid process involves the conversion of natural gas into a clean source of energy mainly diesel and naphtha. Today, many giant oil and gas companies have or planning for demonstration and commercial GTL plants. For examples, Sasol of South Africa installed and operated the first commercial GTL plant based on coal feedstock about half century ago and is constructing jointly with Qatar Petroleum a 34,000 BPD capacity GTL plant in Ras Laffan - Qatar. Expansion of the plant to 100,000 BPD is being evaluated by Qatar Petroleum and Sasol-Chevron. Shell already has a 15,000 BPD commercial plant in Malaysia and has recently signed an agreement with Qatar Petroleum for a giant GTL integrated complex of 140,000 BPD capacity. Exxon-Mobil is running a 200 BPD demonstration unit in Baton Rouge, Louisiana and is considering jointly with Qatar Petroleum a commercial scale GTL project possibly with a capacity of 100,000 BPD. BP has recently started a 300 BPD demonstration unit in Nikiski, Alaska. ConocoPhilips has constructed a 400 BPD demonstration unit in Ponca City, Oklahoma which was commissioned in mid 2003 and is considering a commercial scale GTL plant with Qatar Petroleum. Marathon Oil jointly with Syntroleum is constructing a 100 BPD demonstration unit in Catoosa, Tulsa, Oklahoma. Marathon is also considering a world scale GTL project with Qatar Petroleum. The question is why this flurry of gas-to-liquid projects? The answer is very simple: the market for GTL diesel is huge, as the sulfur and aromatics specification for Diesel oil becomes and will continue to be tighter to comply with exhaust mission requirements. Production of refinery diesel with ultra low sulfur content will be expensive to the point that makes production cost of GTL diesel oil which is practically contains zero sulfur and not more than 1% aromatics close to that of ultra law sulfur diesel recovered from crude oil. At period of low crude oil prices, production of synthetic fuel by GTL route was found to be uneconomic as compared to the price of fuel derived from crude oil and the application of the process was frozen.

Abstract Failures in sour environments are a major concern to oil producing companies because these failures do not usually involve material loss (wall thinning). These time - dependent failures can release toxic gas (hydrogen sulphide) to the environment. Of major concern is the exposure of facilities designed for sweet service to wet hydrogen. Hence, this paper reviews the theory of HIC. For new production facilities such as Pipelines, free-water knock out (FWKO) drum and flare stack, material selection using the well-known immersion test NACE TM0177/ NACE TM02 84 is highlighted. Structure - property relationship is of paramount importance in design, hence regression equations were used to establish the effect of chemistry and microstructure on mechanical properties. Recommendations were made for repair of equipment / facilities that failed during the transition from sweet to sour services. Eventually, a rule based form of expert (knowledge based) system was used to formalize a number of relationships. These rules are in the form of IF -THEN relationships. A brief explanation of the expert system is given as the basis of rule format. Introduction Recent failures[1–6] of pipelines and flare stacks are a major motivation for production of HIC- resistant steels. This problem posed by hydrogen interaction with steel becomes more pressing as the search for energy resources advances into deeper gas and oil wells. The products from these wells have high susceptibility to hydrogen sulphide (H 2 S) and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) contamination. The use of water or steam injection as an enhanced recovery technique worsens the situation by raising the corrosivity of these ‘sour’ environments. This concern assumes a wider dimension if the original design is for sweet environment. There are two major theories of HIC. Firstly, the pressure model pioneered by Zapffe and Sims[7] which postulates that the entry of atomic and subsequent accumulation of molecular hydrogen at traps promotes cracking and subsequently, a hydrogen - induced decohesion of the lattice was proposed by Troiano[8]. Much work has identified non- metallic inclusions (NMI) as potential nucleation sites for HIC, hence much emphasis is placed on producing low sulphur (0.005%max) and low phosphorus (150 ppm max) steels. These steels are also regarded as killed clean steels. HIC resistance of these steel is confirmed by carrying out NACE tests TM 0177 / NACE TM 0284. Structure - Property relation of carbon steel is reviewed because HIC resistance steels have to meet the requirements of mechanical properties. A recent case of failure is highlighted, with relevant recommendations. Eventually a brief review of expert (knowledge based) system is carried out with examples of applications.