This article is a review of India's programme aimed at developing deep sea manganese nodules on a commercial basis. A brief history of the programme is followed by an outline of current work in the areas of survey and exploration, deep-sea mining technologies, extractive metallurgy and environmental studies. There then follows an analysis of the resources available to the project both fiscal and in terms of available manpower. The programme is viewed in the wider context of Indian science and technology policy in general and the ocean sciences in particular, emphasising major factors which have led to its implementation. The article concludes by detailing some current trends within the programme and likely future options for its development.
Since Independence in 1947, successive indian governments have placed great emphasis on the development of indigenous science and technology, viewing this as a means of narrowing the technological gap between India and the more industrialised western nations, and thereby improving the average standard of living within the country. This strategy has led to the development of a range of ambitious programme; space, nuclear, electronics, Antarctic, and the subject of this article deep-sea mining. Although India has had a long sea-faring tradition, it is only after Independence that priority has been given to the R&D programme related to the tapping of living and non-living marine resources. Oceanographic research and development has been given extra impetus during the last 25 years with the establishment of the Institute of Oceanography, the marine work of the Oil and Natural Gas Commission, and the establishment of the Marine Geology Division in the Geological Survey of India. Studies by naval research groups and participation in major international programmes like IIOE, GRAP and MONEX have also played an important role 1 As a result of this activity, major advances have been made in indian oceanography in recent years.
In order to plan, coordinate and develop an indigenous capability in Oceanographic research, the Government of India set up an Ocean Science and Technology Agency (OSTA) in the Department of Science and Technology in 1976. A separate Marine Research and Development Fund was set up under OSTA to support R&D in this area. Subsequently, a Department of Ocean Development (DOD) was created in July 1981, charged with matters regarding coordination, security, regulation and development of the ocean including 2,3
promotion of R&D in the marine sector.
surveys to locate and map the availability of living and non-living resources of the Exclusive Economic Zone and of the continental shelf (excluding hydrocarbons).
development of skills and manpower.
protection of the marine environment in the high sea areas.
survey, exploration and development of deep sea bed mining.
promotion and coordination of Antarctic Research.
