The unprecedented time span of concern and consequent need to predict future geological evolution, coupled with the potential consequences of failure, dictate that geological characterizations prepared for nuclear waste repository evaluation be immensely complex. The complexity of such investigations can, however, be used to optimize the knowledge achieved by a synergistic interaction between the individual geological disciplines. Additionally, we view the use of "back analysis" of geological structures as an essential tool of the characterisation process, for example for the assessment of constitutive relationships applicable during long periods of time. Considering a sedimentary basin as an example of a geologic system to be characterised, the role of the stratigraphy/lithology and structural geology/tectonics disciplines are reviewed. Comments are included on the role of vertical crustal movements in intraplate environments, as a directly measurable and therefore readily appreciable facet of the evolution of geologic systems. The significance of vertical crustal movement upon strain energy changes is noted. The roles of state of stress and geomorphology/palaeoclimate are introduced and used to illustrate the use of interaction between disciplines to optimize the geological characterisation. INTRODUCTION Emplacement in a geological system is a favored solution to the alternative proposals for isolation of high level nuclear waste. Selection of a suitable site, repository design and safety assessment depend upon a characterisation of the geological system within which the waste is to be stored. It must be assumed that the quality and relevance of geological characterisations prepared for repository development will therefore be directly reflected in the subsequent performance of the repository. In general, all activities involved in the isolation of waste in the earth's crust depend upon the geological characterizations prepared for this purpose. Because of the potential consequences of failure of a waste isolation facility, it is assumed that the investment in geological exploration will be substantial and thus the evaluation of geological conditions will be detailed. This in itself means that such investigations will be complex. Additionally, however, the comprehension of the geological system which must be achieved by such investigations is unprecedented. The lack of precedence arises largely as a result of the vastly increased time scale of concern. Previous investigations for potentially hazardous facilities have been related to engineering lives of generally less than 10 2 years; the nature of the nuclear waste to be isolated is such that time spans of the order of 10 6 years are of concern. Thus, the geologist is rather abruptly faced with the change of perspective determined by a time scale which is increased by approximately 10 4 years. This means that the geologist must consider evolution of the geologic system during the life of the waste repository. Other reasons which influence the level of the characterisation to be achieved, and the difficulties in achieving such, include the need to minimize disturbance of the rock mass, to account for groundwater flow at a regional scale and to account for thermomechanical effects. However, it is the time scale of concern and the consequence of failure which primarily determine the complexity of the geologic characterisation, and the need to optimize investigation.

The following perspective was presented for discussion at Rockstore ''80. It is intended to address, in very general terms, the following three questions: Upon what experience can we base geological investigations for subsurface nuclear waste isolation facilities? What are the additional requirements to be met, for which our previous experience must be extended? What approaches can be adopted to meet these new requirements? INTRODUCTORY COMMENTS Geological characterisations provide input to all the subsequent phases of repository development, including performance assessment. Consequently, the quality and accuracy of safety assessments can directly reflect the quality and accuracy of geological characterisations. Before presenting this perspective, it is appropriate to explain the meaning of some terms to be used in this discussion. The word "system" is not used in the traditional geological sense, but in the more universal sense to denote a body of interacting and interdependent parts. The disposal medium is viewed as a part of the system to be employed, not to be treated in isolation from the geological system of which it is only a part. An additional term, characterisation, is used in the recognition that we cannot expect to define all the parts of a system as complex as the geological system within which disposal of waste is to be carried out. The overall objective must be to gain a knowledge of those processes pertinent to containment within the system which is sufficient to rationalise the potential for waste/system interaction. AN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE A new class of industrial development has appeared within the last 30 to 40 years. This class of engineered structures can be identified on the basis of the consequences of operational failure. For these structures, such failure is apparently of potentially far greater severity, in terms of public health, than is the case for other industrial development. In recognition of this fact, a far greater level of effort and care in siting, design, and construction is warranted. Examples of this class of structures are nuclear power plants and such chemical facilities as LNG plants. Commonly, the design lives of such facilities are approximately 40 years. Regulation of such development has been established at a national level. The relevant national and other regulatory bodies have sought a much more stringent degree of performance assessment than previously known. Because of the potential impact which such a facility can have in terms of escape of hazardous material in the event of operational failure, a knowledge of the natural environment of the facility is required. The process of safety assessment is thus dependent upon a wide range of scientific disciplines, not simply upon that which governs the industrial process of concern, such as chemical or nuclear engineering. Yet it would be unreasonable to assume that man has an equivalent level of understanding of each technical discipline of relevance. To assume that the levels of knowledge of nuclear physics and of geologic processes were similarly advanced at the onset of nuclear power development, for example, would be absurd.

A research facility has been established in the granitic gneiss of the CSM Experimental Mine at Idaho Springs, Colorado, for the purpose of evaluating/ developing mining, geologic and geotechnical procedures appropriate for use in establishing nuclear waste repositories in hard rock. An experimental room has been excavated using careful blasting procedures. The extent and magnitude of blast damage is being evaluated. Structural geology is being mapped to assess continuity. INTRODUCTION The Colorado School of Mines under sponsorship of the Department of Energy through the Office of Nuclear Waste Isolation has established a hard rock research facility at its Experimental Mine near Idaho Springs, Colorado. This facility which is located in the Idaho Springs formation (a granitic gneiss) is presently being used for the following purposes: evaluate and develop techniques for careful excavation in hard rock. develop the mapping techniques required for adequately describing the structural geology. evaluate the structural continuity in granitic gneiss. evaluate the structural damage done to the rock mass by blasting. develop techniques for evaluating fracture permeability. evaluate the permeability changes in the rock mass due to blasting. Although specifically oriented towards nuclear waste storage/disposal, the techniques and procedures being developed/evaluated have wide applicability to all underground excavations in hard rock. THE CSM EXPERIMENTAL MINE The Edgar Mine (the proper name for the CSM Experimental Mine) is located at an elevation of about 2,30Om at Idaho Springs, Colorado, approximately 40km from the CSM campus at Golden. Geologically, the mine is located in an area which has been varyingly affected by seven tectonic and/or structural events dating back 1.750 b.y. Three of the seven events appear to have played a dominant role in establishing the structural trends present. The Boulder Creek Orogeny (1.750–1.690 b.y.) initially resulted in regional dynamothermal metamorphism of the Precambrian basement rocks and formed a structural trend still existent today. A younger, un-named Precambrian deformation (1.30 b.y.) was dominantly cataclastic accompanied by minor and local recrystallization and folding. A third event during the Late Cretaceous to Early Tertiary time (70–40 m.y.) not only resulted in an undetermined amount of reopening of Precambrian, age fracture sets but also was responsible for superposition of a younger set of fractures on a regional basis throughout the Precambrian basement rocks. The younger Precambrian cataclastic event and the Late Cretaceous-Early Tertiary Laramide Orogeny resulted in the rocks of the central Colorado Front Range having undergone brittle failure. The ores for which the Edgar was developed are thought to have been deposited at that time. The Edgar Mine was named after the Edgar vein which strikes N65°E on the average and dips 70–85 O N.W. It consisted of a crushed wall rock, primarily a schist of the Idaho Springs Formation, from a few inches to three feet in width. It was slightly silcified and contained disseminated pyrite. Records from the 1870's revealed that the first class ores of the Edgar Mine averaged 16 gms/t gold, 151 gms/t silver and seldom less than 45 to 50 percent lead.

Geological characterizations for nuclear waste repositories are without precedent in terms of scope and intended utilization. Furthermore, the time scale of concern is vast in comparison to those with which previous geological characterizations has been concerned. Geological evolution is to be expected during this time scale consequently, evaluation of future changes must be undertaken. The basis for such evaluation can only be obtained from the geological record. Examples of past changes are outlined and an approach to the use of past changes for evaluation of future change is noted. INTRODUCTION The main objective of geologic investigations for nuclear waste repository development is the acquisition and analysis of appropriate data to characterize'' a complex geological/geotechnical system. Input derived from this characterization is required by all activities comprising the process of development of a geologic repository for ultimate disposal. and, permanent isolation of nuclear waste. A geologic nuclear waste repository must satisfy two broad' objectives: isolate the waste from the biosphere for a sufficient time such that release to the biosphere poses- no hazard and, achieve compatibility of the mode of waste storage wi.th any retrieval criteria. ''1''fre, adequacy of the approach adopted to satisfy these objectives must be demonstrated to the general public by means of the licensing procedures. Although these Procedures are not well defined, and in most licensing processes non-technical judgments often prevail, the concept adopted as a guideline for preparation of a licensing application may be to show that, for It given issue: 1. we adequately understand it. 2. We can adequately measure/evaluate it, and 3. We can estimate its long-term effects. The term "adequately" is obviously the key to acceptance of any technical knowledge. Adequate is used to mean a level of understanding, measurement, or evaluation capability sufficient to gain acceptance by the scientific community The characterizations required are without precedent in term's of scope and intended utilization (design and licensing of a repository). Moreover, the time scales which are applicable to repository performance are vast in comparison to those with which previous geological characterizations have been concerned. THE REQUIREMENTS OF GEOLOGIC CHARACTERIZATIONS FOR WASTE REPOSITORY DEVELOPMENT Background Prior to the introduction of nuclear technology, geological characterizations intended for immediate technological consumption were relatively simple. The information provided was typically utilized in mineral/petroleum and civil engineering industries. The characterizations seldom involved a wide spectrum of earth-science disciplines and/or a large amount of effort and funds. The attention was focused exclusively on definition of the geologic status quo. This limited participation of earth-science technology was justified by the relatively minor socio-environmental consequences and social commitments resulting and/or associated with the activities of the sponsoring industries. The emergence of nuclear technology, together with its benefits, potential hazards, and by-products, dramatically changed the sophistication of the geological characterizations required. Input involving an in-depth characterization, from a wide spectrum of earth-science disciplines, became an integral and obligatory part of any application for a license to construct and operate a commercial nuclear facility (usually a nuclear power plant).

Creation and use of shallow and deep underground space raise few legal questions that have not been encountered during the development of other natural resources. Issues concerning ownership of space, standards of proper use, and extent of public regulation will be sharpened and resolved with greater experience aided by multidisciplinary assessments of how to enjoy maximum benefits of this new frontier with minimum social costs. INTRODUCTION Principles of technology transcend national borders, but laws generally do not and, indeed, frequently differ among political subdivisions within nations. However, the role of law is the same nearly everywhere. It allocates rights and responsibilities with respect to owner-ship and use of property, establishes standards of conduct among persons and institutions, and balances the responsibilities of private and public entities. The most common legal questions, such as those related to obligation of contract, liability for accidents, and investment of capital, are similar to those that arise during construction and use of surface facilities. The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the three main legal questions concerning use of subsurface space: right to use the space-- that is, its ownership and access to it, use of the space in a manner consistent with use of the land surface and of surrounding subsurface earth and space, and regulation by government of how the space can be used. Please note that we are not concerned here with specific laws. That, indeed, would be presumptuous at an international conference with official delegations from more than 30 nations. Law consists of interwoven sets of rules that have grown in response to needs and expectations of the past. The flexibility of law at times might be somewhat unsettling as it is applied to specific factual situations, but lack of rigidity is a virtue rather than a vice. It allows law to respond smoothly to altered conditions and helps avoid abrupt changes in the social order. The legal system must accommodate the rights granted in the past with the ones acquired today under far different social conditions. Therefore, in analyzing the status of law with respect to an emerging technology, He first must make two determinations. What is the law--that is, how has society responded to past experiences? What should be the law--that is, how should society respond to present and future expectations? If the two are not the same, if "is" does not equal "ought", then we consider how to change the law without; abandoning present reliance on it. If law does prove to be a hindrance to technological development, it almost certainly is because He have not foreseen the results of the technology itself. To regard law as anything but an ally in the development of subsurface space is to discredit the efforts of past generations in devising a remarkably resilient mechanism for balancing the benefits and burdens that jointly accompany changing conditions.