.... Based on the conservation of momentum, Von Karman derived a formula to predict the impact force. Wagner (1932) proposed a refined theory to predict the impact loads later. After that, some researchers improved Wagner's theory to predict the impact loads more accurately. For example, Zhao and Faltinsen...

... bergs will be detected and easily avoided; thus, striking these unexpectedly is not likely. It is the smaller, less detectable ice formations that pose the most risk. Consequently, determining the impact forces for a range of speeds for the growler or bergy bits that can unexpectedly (without prior...