Overview There are a multitude of reasons why employers create safety and health-related documentation. These include compliance with mandatory paperwork requirements promulgated by the Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) and the Mine Safety & Health Administration (MSHA), which range from injury/illness records, to documentation of training provided to workers (both formal courses and less formal "toolbox talks"), as well as workplace examinations, equipment inspections, industrial hygiene monitoring, and exposure control plans to guard against health hazards associated with asbestos, lead, silica, and other toxic chemicals. There is another universe of documents, which are routinely created and maintained in the course of business voluntarily or as a matter of "best practice." These include: employee handbooks, safety and health audits, safety and health programs, incentive and disciplinary programs, safety and health committee minutes, job hazard analysis (JHA) or other standard operating procedures, job descriptions, safety and health management systems, environmental compliance handbooks, occupational health programs, medical surveillance programs, and internal training materials. Properly prepared and maintained, these documents can be your best line of defense (a shield) against unwarranted citations or other enforcement actions. But failure to invoke legal privilege where available, carelessly written documents, or materials that contain information constituting an admission against interest by the employer or its agents of management, can be used as a sword against you by OSHA and MSHA. Even documents viewed as proactive, or helpful, by an employer can be used to show "employer recognition" of hazardous conditions, which can support enforcement actions under OSHA's General Duty Clause, or to heighten the level of negligence assigned to a citation by showing a pattern or practice of recurring safety and health problems. Documents that can inadvertently be produced voluntarily and then used as the government's "Exhibit A" against the employer include safety and health audits, safety and health committee meeting minutes, near-miss reports, and job hazard analysis forms. Moreover, improper destruction of documents, particularly those where a litigation "hold" has been placed under notice by OSHA or MSHA, can even give rise to criminal prosecution for obstruction of justice or conspiracy!

Introduction In the control of occupational diseases caused by breathing air contaminated with harmful dusts, fogs, fumes, mists, gases, smokes, sprays, or vapors, the primary objective shall be to prevent atmospheric contamination. This shall be accomplished as far as feasible by accepted engineering control measures (for example, enclosure or confinement of the operation, general and local ventilation, and substitution of less toxic materials). When effective engineering controls are not feasible, or while they are being instituted, appropriate respirators shall be used pursuant to this section. Respiratory Protection Respirators are designed to protect individuals from harmful airborne contaminants or low oxygen levels. Respiratory Protection Programs Respiratory protection programs establish acceptable practices for respirator use, responsibilities, and provides guidance on medical surveillance, proper selection, fit testing, use and care of respirators in accordance with the OSHA regulatory requirements. Permissible Practice OSHA has established hierarchy of controls requiring the use of feasible engineering controls as the primary means to control air contaminants. Respirators are required when " effective engineering controls are not feasible, or while they are being instituted." Paragraph (a)(2) requires employers to provide employees with respirators that are " applicable and suitable" for the purpose intended " when such equipment is necessary to protect the health of the employee."

The PDF file is a slide presentation. Overview Definitions Hazard Identification and Control Accidents Work Planning Workplace Hazards System Safety Hazards and Risk Hazard: a dangerous condition, either potential or inherent, which can interfere with the expected, orderly progress of a given activity Risk: a measured or calculated chance of exposure to hazard(s) which may or may not result in loss Both should be managed! Accidents and Incidents Accident: an unplanned and therefore unwanted or undesired event resulting in physical harm and/or property damage Incident: an unplanned event that did not but could have resulted in physical harm and/or property damage Both should be investigated!

The PDF file is a slide presentation. Workplace Health Safety - usually associated with acute injuries, short-term, traumatic exposures Health - usually directed at chronic exposures, persistent, prolonged, repeated Definition Industrial Hygiene - "that science and art devoted to the anticipation, recognition, evaluation, and control of those environmental factors or stresses, arising in or from the workplace, which may cause sickness, impaired health and well-being, or significant discomfort, and inefficiency among workers or among the citizens of the community" Environmental Stresses Chemical - environmental concentrations Physical - noise, heat, ionizing, etc. Ergonomic - man-machine interface Biological - micro living organisms States of Matter Solids - definite shape and volume Liquids - definite volume but no definite shape Gases - neither definite volume nor shape Chemical Stresses Dusts - solid particles from handling, grinding, crushing, impact (1–25 microns) (cotton, grain, grinding wheels) Smoke - carbon or soot particles less than .1 microns in size and are the products of incomplete combustion (fire, gas engines) Fumes - solid particles generated by condensation from the gaseous state (welding, soldering, brazing) Aerosols - solid particles or liquid droplets of fine enough size to remain dispersed in air for a prolonged period of time (powder sprays, paint sprays) Mists - suspended liquid droplets generated by condensation of liquids, or by breaking up a liquid into a dispersed state (mixing vats, maintenance degreasers) Vapors - volatile form of a substance normally a liquid or solid at STP (paint thinners, nail polish remover)

Indoor Air Quality–A Modern Occupational Health Issue Modern building construction and operations have come a long way since the first energy crisis of the 1970's. Both occupant comfort and cost-effective management practices have improved compared to ages past. Yet while building construction has proven the ability keep warm or cool air sealed in and thereby reduce operating costs of Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) systems, the same energy-efficient design has had a paradoxical effect on select human health concerns. Additionally, people spend more and more time than ever indoors according to the American Lung Association. These two facts of modern life have brought on a growing phenomenon of ‘Sick Building Syndrome’ and ‘Building –Related Illness.’ (BRIs) One of the downsides of energy management in the nature of building construction is to keep contaminants that originate in building operations or are brought in by occupants sealed in along with the warm or cool air. Symptoms that make these contaminants suspect sources include anything from upper-respiratory infections and itchy, watery eyes to asthma. Known causes include mold mycotoxins, bacteria and other organic particulates. These biological etiologies are encouraged to grow, using the building materials and environments for food, moisture and required temperature. Other sources of certain BRIs can be found in the building materials themselves. These include asbestos, silica dust or chemicals and other materials used in the operations taking place in the building. The increase in BRIs is even more pronounced when natural or man-made disasters strike and create conditions for accelerated growth or airborne dispersal of contaminants. Mold follows flooding, wildfires beget distributions of any manner of particulates, and any event which causes structural damage can increase the concentrations of asbestos or particulates from other building materials in the air being breathed by building occupants. Even a simple electrical power outage can render HVAC systems all but useless for several days, creating perfect environments for growth of biological contaminants.

Introduction Companies invest thousands of dollars in OSHA based safety programs in terms of development time, production downtime for training, software and engineering changes. These same companies spend very little time on actually planning for an OSHA inspection. Many companies today have business contingency plans in the event of a fire or natural disaster but neglect to plan for an OSHA Inspection. Having an OSHA preparedness plan in 2017 will be vital for many organizations due to increased OSHA fines, new OSHA rules and requirements, additional focus on National Emphasis Programs and the use of the General Duty Clause. OSHA is changing its inspection metric to add weight to complex inspections such as those involving ergonomic hazards, chemical exposures, workplace violence and inspections, which typically involve the use of the General Duty Clause. OSHA deems this new system as its resource-intensive enforcement activity and is focused on some of the most severe work place hazards. (1) OSHA fines in 2017 are increasing as well; OSHA has decided to raise penalties by about 78 percent, resulting in a maximum fine of $124,709 for repeat or willful violations compared to the previous fine of $70,000. Fines for serious and other-than-serious violations will now have a maximum fine of $12,471, an increase from the prior fine of $7,000 for serious and other-than-serious violations. (2) Occupational Health Hazards have always been an OSHA priority through the development of National Emphasis Programs and the requirements associated with hexavalent chromium, lead and other chemicals (8). The most recent rule change pertains to silica and includes provisions, which will significantly lower the permissible exposure limits and require employers to use engineering controls or other means to limit worker exposure. (3) Under a new rule, employers will be required to electronically submit certain records of workplace injuries. This rule would require larger companies and what OSHA considers " high hazard employers" to submit electronic versions of their injury and illness logs. OSHA feels that the analysis of this data will allow them to use its enforcement more efficiently and some of the data will also be posted to the OSHA website. (4)

Introduction Boilers, water heaters, air tanks and other pressure retaining items are common to all occupancies. Many times they are hidden in mechanical rooms, basements and closets. These stationary devices can be hazardous to your facility in many ways, from water damage to carbon monoxide poisoning, to burns and explosions. As a Safety Professional, how do you know if your system is being properly monitored, operated, maintained and tested? Can you identify the basic hazards and conditions in your mechanical rooms? As Safety Professionals, the immediate hazards we think about are the confined spaces, rotating machinery, electrical hazards and the other components of our safety program. There are many other hazards associated with boilers and pressure vessels that can be readily identified during your plants safety walk through. Can automation can be hazardous? Advances in automation and the need for efficiency gains have resulted in reduced maintenance resources in most facilities. Decades ago, boilers and pressure vessels were entrusted to experienced and often licensed operators who conducted routine inspections, tests and the required maintenance while monitoring the safe operation of these units. In today's facilities, it is the exception to have qualified and dedicated personnel monitoring the boiler and pressure vessel operations on a routine basis. The hazards associated with stored energy have not changed. Boiler and pressure vessel accidents and injuries are still common and avoidable. In many cases, the design of modern boilers and pressure vessels are hidden under the cover of a common metal box. They are common hazards in the workplace and are overlooked on a frequent basis. The advanced control systems found on modern boilers can give a false sense of security. They provide automatic operation with minimal operator intervention. These advances have created an increased reliability to overall operations yet they have created an apathetic boiler and pressure vessel operational culture. Changes in boiler and pressure vessel laws in many cases have removed the requirement for a licensed operator. In some cases, there are requirements for jurisdictional inspections; however annual or longer jurisdictional inspection frequencies do not reveal the everyday hazards to the safety of your facility and you might be surprised at what they don't look for.

Introduction Solar, wind, and fossil fuel power generation operations harbor an amazing variety of significant occupational health hazards. These chemical, biological, and physical hazards range from the obvious to the abstruse, and from the routine to the rare. This paper discusses the importance of anticipating and characterizing all occupational health hazards, and reinforces this premise through illustrations of a sampling of these hazards. A summary of relevant pending proposed and recently finalized U.S. regulatory changes that could impact occupational health hazard characterization, control, and communication in the power generation industry is also provided. Anticipating Workplace Health Hazards in the Power Industry The risk faced by employees in the power industry is a function of the hazards present and the level of exposure to those hazards. An organized, systematic method of exposure and risk assessment is the key to being able to control these risks through a successful, effective occupational health and industrial hygiene program. The use of this systematic method, known as "Qualitative Exposure Assessment" (or QEA), to characterize workplace exposures to chemical, physical and biological agents, is the solid foundation of this process. Initial qualitative exposure assessments typically involve a site visit by an industrial hygienist who will interview personnel and examine work areas for hazards, controls, work activities, and chemicals. This initial assessment represents a mere "snapshot in time", is performed within a limited timeframe, and depends heavily on information provided by employees, limited observations, and the skills and experience of the person performing the assessment. As such, this initial assessment tends to be somewhat limited in its comprehensiveness. Complicating matters, after completion of the initial assessment, operations, materials, equipment and conditions are ever evolving and highly subject to change. To insure a sustainable hazard control program, a continuous improvement cycle must inextricably woven into the QEA process. To this end, effective hazard reporting systems, scheduled periodic reassessment of hazards, and implementation of management of change processes are key components.

Disclaimer This training is based on current United States federal OSHA requirements 29 CFR 1910 and 1926. U.S. state, or other country requirements may be different. Requirements can change in the future. This paper contains general information as of the date of this presentation and should not be relied upon to make specific decisions. No warrantees are made, as this program only presents suggested procedure that may be applicable for work in these environments. The employer has ultimate responsibility for assessing the worksite and implementing adequate safety precautions. Introduction Work, especially in construction or infrastructure renovation, often has a time value element. Work must continue even in adverse weather conditions. These weather conditions can add yet another hazard to an already potentially dangerous occupation. However, anticipation, recognition, evaluation and control of potential heat or cold stressors can allow the job to continue safely with minimal interruption. Heat Stress Why is Heat Stress a Concern? There are several phases of heat stress - heat rash, cramps, exhaustion. None of these are life threatening, however they can contribute to: Loss of productivity Irritability Fatigue Low moral Absenteeism Short-cuts in procedure These all in turn can add up to becoming a safety hazard when an irritated, tired, discouraged worker starts skipping procedures and taking short-cuts on the job. However, in addition to the above, there is also heat stroke - a true medical emergency. Between 2008 and 2014 US OSHA identified 109 "heat related fatalities" in the United States. (OSHA 2015) In one example, a construction worker collapsed after sawing boards for form work. When admitted to the hospital, the worker's core temperature was 108º F. He died the following day from heat stroke. (NIOSH) Heat stress is a significant hazard on the job site that must be controlled. The NIOSH Criteria Document on heat distinguishes between classical heat stroke and exertional heat stroke (the more common form seen in the workplace). Individual characteristics (e.g., age and health status), type of activity (e.g., sedentary versus strenuous exertion), and symptoms (e.g., sweating versus dry skin) vary between these two classifications.

Introduction Asbestos is the name for a group of naturally occurring silicate minerals that can be separated into fibers. The fibers are strong, durable, and resistant to heat and fire. There are several types of asbestos fibers, three of which are used for commercial applications: chrysotile, or white asbestos, comes mainly from Canada, and has been very widely used in the United States—it is white-gray in color and found in serpentine rock; amosite, or brown asbestos, comes from southern Africa; crocidolite, or blue asbestos, comes from southern Africa and Australia. Amosite and crocidolite are called amphiboles. This term refers to the nature of their geologic formation. Other asbestos fibers that have not been used commercially are tremolite, actinolite, and anthophyllite, although they are sometimes contaminants in asbestos-containing products. In addition to asbestos mines, asbestos is found as a contaminant mineral in the host rock in non-asbestos mining operations. Asbestos has long been recognized as a human carcinogen. (Refer to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, the National Toxicology Program report of December 2002, "10th Report on Carcinogens," at http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/roc/tenth/profiles/s016asbe.pdf .) OSHA estimates that 1.3 million employees in construction and general industry have significant asbestos exposure on the job—those workers involved in construction, renovation, and demolition have the most risk of exposure. Other high-risk jobs include manufacture of asbestos products (such as building materials and insulation) and performing automotive brake and clutch repair. Of particular utility is a list of suspected asbestos-containing materials prepared by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which can be found in Table 3 of this chapter and at http://www.epa.gov/Region06/6pd/asbestos/asbmatl.htm . Construction employers whose projects involve materials of the types listed should anticipate potential asbestos exposure and carefully review their obligations under applicable OSHA, EPA, and/or state standards. Asbestos, or fibrous dust, is created and released into the ambient air by the breaking, crushing, grinding, drilling, or general abrasive handling of a solid material that has fibrous components. Chrysotile is the type of asbestos most commonly found in commercial products. Amosite and crocidolite are generally considered to be the most toxic. Fibrous dust particles do not readily settle out of the air, but can remain suspended for long periods of time. As a result, accumulations of fibrous dust can continue to present an inhalation hazard when they are stirred up by vehicular traffic, by persons walking through them, or by the wind.

Introduction Occupational Health Hazards may be lurking within your plant, warehouse or even office. These hazards may not present themselves until an employee has a reaction, there is an employee complaint or during an OSHA inspection. Many safety administrators are being asked to evaluate occupational health exposures within their operations to determine if employees are being exposed to hazardous materials and to ensure that these employees are protected from these hazards. These safety administrators may not be aware of the different types of hazards present within their own facility or the best way to asses and control these hazards. Conducting an Industrial Hygiene/Occupational Health Hazard risk assessment for a manufacturing plant, warehouse and office can help identify, prioritize and control occupational health hazards. Occupational health hazards can be lurking within major industries including plastics, metal fabrication, food, woodworking and printing. Occupational Health Hazards can stem from mold, solvents, welding fumes, dust and even biological hazards. The occupational health hazard risk assessment provides a step by step method on how to determine if employees are exposed to significant or even moderate occupational health hazards, how to determine where they are present and how to prioritize and evaluate the exposures for further action. A key concept with the occupational health hazard risk assessment involves a basic understanding of the key elements of Industrial Hygiene (anticipation, recognition, evaluation and control) and the environmental factors and stresses arising from the workplace which may cause sickness, impaired health and inefficiency among workers.

Introduction While 29 CFR 1910.1450, Occupational exposure to hazardous chemicals in laboratories may not apply to your facility, it contains invaluable lessons in chemical hygiene. Chemical hygiene, by definition, addresses specific hazards that come from working with chemicals, and delves into topics such as how to protect workers from harm, limit occupational exposure, set down a list of requirements for use, and how to inform employees of rights and obligations. To this end, the general scope and application of 1910.1450 presents a practical, thorough, and intensive criteria which could be followed by any health and safety department. The Standard sets an outline for a chemical hygiene plan that includes, but is not limited to, integrating a Hierarchy of Controls, ensuring equipment is maintained and used correctly, instituting prior approvals for hazardous chemicals, designating a hygiene officer, and finally, establishing provisions for the replacement (or elimination) of known health hazards such as toxins, poisons, carcinogens and reproductive risks. In the event known health hazards cannot be avoided, then requirements are introduced for their management by means of designation of use areas, carefully labelled waste collection, and equipment decontamination. Chemical Hygiene in Accordance with 1910.1450 Let's briefly review a typical Hierarchy of Controls – engineering controls, administrative controls, and Personal Protective Equipment (PPE). They are always presented and instituted in this order of importance, for logical and sensible reasons. Engineering a person safe means designing systems such that the employee no longer has to think about the safety of their overall environment. This typically equates to adequate air flow (exchange) in the work environment. You will recall, that of the four means of exposure to a health hazard (injection, absorption, inhalation, and ingestion), inhalation is the primary means of introduction. The passive act of breathing is the most precious thing to protect. Of course, no finely tuned engineering system is adequate to protect someone who is using safety equipment incorrectly.

Overview Demands on the Oil & Gas industry are driving continual improvement in Health, Safety & Environment (HSE) performance, which in turn the business performance of an organization. The use of various hand-held or hand-guided power tools and machines powered tools is one of the essential prerequisites of any industry and fundamental business requirement in today's industry operations. Though the hand-held or hand-guided power tools and machines cannot be separated from human beings during execution of various works, however, the risks from these tools shall not be overlooked. Like other industrial hazards, hazards of hand-held or hand-guided power tools may affect the employee health and thereby company's HSE Performance. Hazards from these tools poses serious threat to human beings, serious social problems, bringing adverse effects on the quality of life, which is not only an organizational concern but also an important national/social issue. Many employers recognize that their workers have some degree of exposure to hand-arm vibration (HAV) / whole body vibration (WBV). It is essential that every organization handling such activities shall have guidelines and procedures to address these hazards and other injuries associated with vibration exposure. Vibration hazards, if not properly identified, managed and controlled, can lead to serious and debilitating injuries and illnesses including hand-arm vibration syndrome (HAVS). Hand-arm vibration (HAV) / whole body vibration (WBV) can be considered as widespread hazard for employees in many industries and occupations. HAV exposure at work can arise from the use of hand-held power tools (such as grinders or hammer drills), hand-guided machinery (such as lawnmowers and plate compactors) and hand-fed machines (such as pedestal grinders). Prolonged and regular exposure to this vibration can affect the operator's health. However, the risks from vibration can be controlled and employees can be protected from ill health caused by vibration. To protect employees and to comply with the Vibration Regulations, employers need to assess the risks from vibration and plan to be drawn/made how to control them.

Introduction Thousands of pieces of equipment and machinery that produce hazardous noise levels are used in the manufacturing, construction and service industries in the United States of America. Often management of noise hazards has relied on providing hearing protection to workers, implementing hearing conservation programs, and training workers on the proper use and wear of hearing protection. To be effective, this strategy requires high levels of interaction and coordination from workers, supervisors and safety professionals. Furthermore, the worker's primary workplace responsibilities and activities may distract them from consistent and proper hearing protection use. Although engineering controls are frequently a better solution, the reality is that cost-conscious employers are unlikely to have a noise-control expert on staff to facilitate implementing such measures. The lack of effective noise controls may be a reason that noise-induced hearing loss is still one of the most prevalent occupational health concerns in the United States of America, with the Agriculture, Construction and Mining Industries most consistently leading in prevalence. In fact, approximately 22 million workers are exposed to hazardous noise levels in the United States. Exposures in the noisiest industries can be quite high due to equipment noise emissions. For instance, heavy equipment like piling equipment, road milling machines and drill rigs can create sound levels in excess of 110 dB(A), while other more common equipment like circular saws, loaders and leaf blowers can have sound power levels between 100 and 110 dB(A) as specified in EU Directive 200/14/EC. Despite potentially dangerous noise emissions in the workplace, engineering controls for noise have not been universally adopted; some of the reasons for this are explored below.

Heat Illness – What is it and why do I care? Under normal conditions, our body can cool itself by sweating. However, during hot and especially hot & humid conditions, sweating is simply not enough. During these extreme conditions, our body temperature can rise to extremely dangerous conditions and the result can be a heat illness. The illness types include: Heat Stroke - the most serious, is caused by the failure of your body's internal functions to adequately regulate your core temperature. Untreated the worker will die. Heat Exhaustion - the result of loss of fluid through sweating, when not enough fluids and/or salt has been taken. Heat Cramps - the result of excess water but lack of replacement of body salt. Fainting - can result when a worker is not acclimated to hot weather. Heat Rash - can result where sweat is not easily evaporated from the skin. A good indicator of how seriously the heat of the day should be taken is the Heat Index. The Heat Index, developed by the US National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration, is a single value that takes into account both heat & humidity. It provides a better indication of how the weather will feel that day.

Introduction Who is legally responsible for safety violations that occur on a jobsite? The Occupational Safety and Health Administration ("OSHA") can impose liability on various entities and in some cases even individuals. Increasingly, OSHA is expanding the avenues for liability, including criminal liability for individuals and civil penalties on host employers and their staffing agencies. In addition to OSHA knocking on the door, employers and the individuals who work for them may face civil liability in private lawsuits, including a variety of tort claims such as negligence and wrongful death. This paper will provide you with an invaluable legal primer of liability issues so that you know who is on the hook when it comes to workplace safety liability. Criminal Liability under the Occupational Safety and Health Act Title 29 U.S.C. § 666(e) provides criminal penalties for any employer who willfully violates a safety standard prescribed pursuant to the Occupational Safety and Health Act (the "OSH Act" or the "Act"), where that violation causes the death of any employee. The government must prove four elements in order to establish a criminal violation under section 666(e). Namely, a prosecutor must prove beyond a reasonable doubt that: the defendant is an employer engaged in a business affecting commerce; the employer violated an OSHA standard (not the general duty clause); the violation was willful; and the violation caused the death of an employee. 2 For purposes of criminal enforcement, an "employer" can be the employing business entity or an individual who is a corporate officer or director. The criminal penalty for these violations is imprisonment for up to six months and monetary penalties of up to $250,000 for individuals. For organizations, monetary penalties can be assessed up to $500,000. In the recent past, OSHA has begun to refer more cases to the Department of Justice ("DOJ") for investigation by a U.S. Attorney and possible criminal sanctions. It is now believed that OSHA's policy is to consider a criminal referral in every case involving an employee fatality and a willful violation. Moreover, OSHA has considered more referrals to local or state prosecutors who may have more remedies available to them for criminal prosecution, particularly of individuals. There are several examples of this policy in action.

Introduction When it comes to ventilation surveys, what you are missing really can hurt you. This author has been perplexed by the vast number of ineffective and sometimes very odd workplace air contaminant ventilation systems encountered in the field over the years. Equally perplexing has been the widely observed lack of understanding on part of the system owners and even many seasoned Industrial Hygiene and Safety professionals in terms of the need to perform, as well as how to perform, periodic ventilation system assessments; what a proper assessment entails; how often assessments should be performed; and the degree of hazard presented by having no system, an ineffective system, or effective system that is malfunctioning or improperly used by staff. Many workplaces have in good faith installed a wide variety of dilution and local exhaust ventilation systems in order to control air contaminant and flammable/explosion hazards generated by a wide variety of processes, ranging from Arc Welding to Kitchens to Dentist Offices to Embalming Operations. If these systems are not properly designed, properly used, or periodically properly assessed, not only do they not control air contaminant, fire, and/or explosion hazards, they exacerbate hazards by providing management and workers with a false sense of security. Optimal ventilation survey technique combined with system owner/operator education is paramount in insuring worker, facility, and operations protection where these systems are installed and relied upon. What you, as a manager, worker, Safety professional or Industrial Hygiene professional don't know about ventilation surveys can hurt you in terms of chronic and acute worker overexposure to air contaminants, lost productivity, liability, facility damage, and interruption of operations. Of particular concern are the chronic health effects that are not immediately noticeable (and therefore often not subject to immediate corrective action) that may result in serious illness after years of exposure at which point it is too late for corrective action. The intent of the following information is not to raise the reader to an expert level of understanding of ventilation systems, but to provide enough information to motivate readers to review their ventilation systems and engage in a continuous improvement of these systems. Neither legal advice nor product endorsement is implied herein. Purpose of Air Contaminant Ventilation Systems In short, dilution and local exhaust ventilation systems serve a critical function as they:

Workplace Health Safety – usually associated with acute injuries, short-term, traumatic exposures Health – usually directed at chronic exposures, persistent, prolonged, repeated Definition Industrial Hygiene – "that science and art devoted to the anticipation, recognition, evaluation, and control of those environmental factors or stresses, arising in or from the workplace, which may cause sickness, impaired health and wellbeing, or significant discomfort, and inefficiency among workers or among the citizens of the community" Environmental Stresses Chemical – environmental concentrations Physical – noise, heat, ionizing, etc. Ergonomic – man-machine interface Biological – micro living organisms States of Matter Solids – definite shape and volume Liquids – definite volume but no definite shape Gases – neither definite volume nor shape

As early as the 1940s, the temporary workforce concept began emerging to fulfill unique industry needs. The demand for temporary workers may have evolved since then, but the inequalities experienced by some of these workers remain the same. In many cases temporary workers are treated at a subpar level as compared to the permanent worker. Temporary workers are treated differently. Their pay rate is normally lower, their job is not secured and they are provided with limited to no benefits. These are just a few of the inequalities experienced by temporary workers. (Olson, 2011). The agencies that employ them are known as "Temporary Agencies", "Temp Agencies" or "Staffing Agencies". These agencies are growing exponentially and their profits are exploding. However, these workers do not benefit from these gains. One of the most noticeable disparities is the increase in injuries and fatalities among these workers. Some of these injuries include crushing, amputations, lacerations, and fatal falls. It is evident that temporary workers are entitled to equal protections under the Occupational Safety and Health Act as all other covered workers (Grabell, Pierce &; Larson, 2013) (Greenhouse, 2014). Workers should not be placed in an unfamiliar or hazardous worksite unless they have been effectively trained to enable them to perform their task(s) without risk to themselves or their coworkers. All workers have the right under the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) to work in a safe and healthy workplace ( osha.gov , n.d.), including temporary workers. There are several solutions and numerous options available to help employers and temporary agencies develop and successfully implement effective safety and health programs that will assist them in identification and elimination of hazards in their establishments to reduce employee injuries and fatalities in the workplace. As early as the 1940s, the temporary workforce concept began emerging to fulfill unique industry needs. The demand for temporary workers may have evolved since then, but the inequalities experienced by some of these workers remain the same. In many cases temporary workers are treated at a subpar level as compared to the permanent worker. Temporary workers are treated differently. Their pay rate is normally lower, their job is not secured and they are provided with limited to no benefits. These are just a few of the inequalities experienced by temporary workers. (Olson, 2011). The agencies that employ them are known as "Temporary Agencies", "Temp Agencies" or "Staffing Agencies". These agencies are growing exponentially and their profits are exploding. However, these workers do not benefit from these gains. One of the most noticeable disparities is the increase in injuries and fatalities among these workers. Some of these injuries include crushing, amputations, lacerations, and fatal falls. It is evident that temporary workers are entitled to equal protections under the Occupational Safety and Health Act as all other covered workers (Grabell, Pierce &; Larson, 2013) (Greenhouse, 2014). Workers should not be placed in an unfamiliar or hazardous worksite unless they have been effectively trained to enable them to perform their task(s) without risk to themselves or their coworkers. All workers have the right under the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) to work in a safe and healthy workplace ( osha.gov , n.d.), including temporary workers. There are several solutions and numerous options available to help employers and temporary agencies develop and successfully implement effective safety and health programs that will assist them in identification and elimination of hazards in their establishments to reduce employee injuries and fatalities in the workplace.

Introduction Tower safety could be collectively summed up as "manual handling at height in the presence of radiofrequency radiation." Safety professionals are for the most part very well versed in manual handling and height safety but have little or no knowledge of the very modern and prevalent hazard of radiofrequency radiation. As such this paper will place a very strong emphasis on this very modern contemporary hazard and its associated risks and controls on cell towers. Radiofrequency radiation is an almost purely occupational hazard in the sense that prior to the 1880's it wasn't being harnessed. The prevalence of this hazard is underestimated because everyone whom uses a mobile phone would be exposed to it at some level. Furthermore mobile phone networks are forever expanding for improved quality of reception and to meet consumer demands. In order for mobile phone networks to operate then towers are required to mount the antennas responsible for radiofrequency transmission that carry the communications data. Under certain circumstances radiofrequency radiation can be very hazardous and because of its space on the electromagnetic spectrum it is invisible. In Australia manual handling at height is deemed by law as high risk work and as such the additional hazard of radiofrequency radiation amplifies the risks of tower work. The Australian climate and native fauna can also play a role in increasing risks on towers. Radiofrequency Radiation Radiofrequency radiation is non-ionizing hence it does not have the energy to break molecular bonds; as a result its effect upon the body is thermal. The body is composed of 70% water and the water molecule has a slight potential across it which alternates with the polarity of the radiofrequency signal. At 100kHz then heating of the body can start where alternating movements can occur at 100,000 cycles per second. The radiofrequency space on the electromagnetic spectrum ranges between 3kHz to 300GHz, so at the upper part of the spectrum that involves movement of water molecules at 300 thousand million cycles per second. Hence heat is generated due to the friction and transferred to body tissue.